POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF APPLE

(Malus domestica)

1
INTRODUCTION

Apple (Malus domestica),

belonging to the family
Rosaceae, is among the most
extensively cultivated fruit trees
worldwide. This review aims to
highlight the postharvest
handling of apple fruit, focusing
on preharvest and postharvest
factors that influence quality.
Preharvest factors include
cultivar type, cultural practices,
fertilizer and irrigation
management, soil
characteristics, and
environmental conditions such as
temperature, humidity, and
atmospheric composition.
Postharvest quality losses commonly arise from improper harvesting, poor
storage, unsuitable packaging, inefficient transportation, and inadequate
processing, sorting, grading, and marketing. The main causes of
deterioration are physiological disorders, including freezing injury, high
temperature damage, and mechanical injuries, as well as pathological
disorders from diseases. Proper control of temperature and relative
humidity is regarded as one of the most effective approaches for
maintaining apple quality and extending its shelf life after harvest.
Apples are seasonal fruits, and strategies have been developed to
extend their shelf life to ensure market availability throughout the year.
Cold storage remains the primary method used; however, decay caused by
Penicillium expansum cannot be completely prevented. This pathogen not
only damages apples but also leads to the production of patulin, a
mycotoxin that poses serious health risks when ingested. To address this,
various postharvest treatments are applied to enhance the effectiveness of
low-temperature storage, with fungicide application being the most
common. Nonetheless, excessive fungicide use has contributed to the
emergence of resistant strains, while growing consumer concerns about
environmental and health impacts of chemicals have intensified.
Consequently, there is increasing interest in alternative approaches that
reduce or replace chemical use. Among these, the application of biocontrol
agents and controlled atmosphere storage has shown potential in managing
apple decay and minimizing patulin accumulation, offering sustainable
alternatives to conventional methods.

Worldwide apple production is large and generally trending upward,

though with year-to-year fluctuations due to weather, disease, and changing
demand. According to FAO and related databases, around 95-100 million
metric tonnes of apples were produced globally in recent years. China is by
far the largest producer (close to half of the global production), followed by

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countries like the United States, Turkey, Poland, and India. In some recent
seasons, global production has slipped slightly — for example, forecasts for
2024/25 indicate a modest drop (several hundred thousand tonnes) because
losses in places like the EU, U.S., Turkey, and Russia more than offset gains
in China. Factors affecting production include climatic stress (hail, heat
during bloom, drought), shifting variety choices (more high-yield,
disease-resistant cultivars), labor costs, orchard age, and changes in area
planted.

Apples are a nutritious fruit, offering a good mix of fiber, vitamins,

minerals, and bioactive phytochemicals. A medium unpeeled apple (≈182 g)
contains about 25 grams of carbohydrates, ~4–5 g of dietary fiber, minimal
fat and protein, and roughly 90-100 calories. The fiber includes both
soluble (like pectin) and insoluble types, which help digestion, promote
feelings of fullness, and moderate blood sugar and cholesterol. Apples are
also a source of vitamin C, potassium, small amounts of B vitamins and
other minerals. Importantly, apples contain various phytochemicals —
flavonoids (e.g. quercetin), phenolic acids (including chlorogenic acid),
catechins, and others — which contribute antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
and potential disease-prevention effects (e.g. for heart disease, certain
cancers, diabetes). Because much of these compounds are in or just under
the skin, eating apples unpeeled enhances these benefits.

To address labor shortages, reduce costs, and improve product

quality, recent innovations in apple orchard machinery and automation are
accelerating. One of the promising developments is robotic apple
harvesters: for instance, a dual-arm apple harvesting robot that pairs two
robotic arms with vacuum or gripper systems, combined with vision systems
and adaptive motion, has shown good success in commercial orchards. Also,
companies like [Link] and Tevel are deploying multi-arm,
vision-guided harvesters (with suction cup end effectors) which move
through high-density orchards using stereo or depth cameras and pick apples
selectively while minimizing bruising. Materials engineering is also
contributing: softer grippers, gentle conveyors, improved bin filler systems
to reduce physical damage during handling. Other machine vision
innovations include better detection of apples in clustered, occluded canopy
environments, estimating crop load via sensors and AI (RGB-D, laser-camera
scanning) to plan thinning, harvesting timing, and automation extent. Plus,
automated pollination systems are under development to supplement or
replace natural pollinators, especially where pollinator populations are
declining or in controlled orchards.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS ‎

Cold Storage – A storage method that uses low temperatures (0–4 °C) to
slow respiration and maintain freshness.

Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage – A storage technique that regulates

oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, temperature, and humidity to extend
shelf life.

Maturity – The stage at which apples are ready for harvest, determined by
size, skin color, firmness, and sugar content.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) – A packaging method that adjusts

the internal air composition to slow respiration and delay spoilage.

Packaging – The use of cartons, crates, or trays to protect apples during

handling, transport, and storage.

Post-Harvest Handling – The overall process of managing fruits after

harvest to maintain quality, minimize losses, and extend shelf life.

Respiration – The process where apples consume oxygen and release carbon
dioxide, water, and heat, influencing shelf life.

Ripening – The natural series of biochemical changes that improve flavor,

aroma, texture, and sweetness after harvest.

Sorting and Grading – The separation of apples based on size, color, and
overall quality to meet market standards.

Transpiration – The loss of water from the fruit surface, causing weight loss
and shriveling if uncontrolled.

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POST- HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF APPLE

Cleaning and Sanitation

 Apples are washed with clean water to remove dirt, pesticide

residues, and field contaminants.
 Sanitizers such as 100–150 ppm chlorine may be used to reduce
microbial load.
 Fruits are air-dried or wiped to prevent moisture retention and
fungal growth.
Field Handling and Transport to Packing Area

 Harvested apples are immediately moved to a shaded, cool area to

prevent heat buildup.
 Plastic crates or lined wooden boxes are used instead of sacks to
prevent compression.
 Fruits are transported to the packing facility as soon as possible.
Harvesting

 Apples are harvested at proper physiological maturity, based on color,

firmness, and seed color.
 Best done early morning or late afternoon to reduce respiration.
 Fruits are hand-picked carefully, avoiding shaking or pulling branches.
 Placed gently in padded picking bags or baskets to minimize bruising.
Packaging

 Apples are packed in fiberboard boxes, crates, or trays with

cushioning.
 Packaging must be food-grade and well-ventilated to prevent
moisture buildup.
 Labels include product name, variety, grade, weight, source, and
handling instructions.
Pre-Cooling

 Removes field heat to slow respiration and ripening.

 Methods include forced-air cooling or room cooling.
 Ideal temperature: 0–4 °C with 90–95% relative humidity.
Ripening

 Apples ripen slowly in storage but may be ethylene-treated for

uniform ripening.
 Ethylene absorbers or inhibitors (e.g., 1-MCP) may be used to delay
ripening during long storage. Sorting and Grading
Sorting: Removal of bruised, diseased, undersized, or malformed apples.
Grading:

 Extra Class – superior, defect-free

 Class I – slight blemishes allowed
 Class II – more visible defects but still marketable
 Storage Stored at 0–4 °C with 90–95% relative humidity.

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  Controlled Atmosphere (CA) can extend shelf life using 2–3% O₂ and 1–
3% CO₂.
 Temperatures below 0 °C may cause chilling injury.
Transport and Distribution

 Use refrigerated trucks to maintain the cold chain.

 Vehicles must be clean and sanitized.
 Packages are stacked with airflow gaps to avoid crushing and
overheating.
 Handling should minimize shocks and vibrations.

6
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF AVOCADO
(Persea americana)

7
INTRODUCTION

Avocado (Persea
americana) is one of the most
nutritious and versatile tropical
fruits cultivated in the Philippines
and globally. It is valued for its
creamy texture, pleasant flavor,
and rich nutrient profile,
containing high levels of
monounsaturated fats, vitamins
(A, C, E, and K), potassium, and
dietary fiber. Because of its
growing demand in both local and
export markets, avocado
production has become
increasingly significant for
smallholder farmers, commercial © Ruben Enger/[Link]
growers, and agribusiness enterprises.

Like other tropical fruits, avocado is a climacteric fruit, which means

it continues to ripen after harvest due to increased respiration and ethylene
production. While this characteristic allows avocados to be harvested at the
mature-green stage and shipped before ripening, it also makes them highly
perishable and sensitive to handling conditions. Without proper
management, fruits are prone to mechanical damage, rapid softening,
microbial decay, chilling injury, and uneven ripening, all of which reduce
their market value and consumer acceptability.

In the Philippines, postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables,

including avocado, remain high often ranging from 20% to 50% due to poor
infrastructure, limited access to cold chain facilities, and lack of
standardized handling practices. To address these challenges, the
Philippine National Standards (PNS), particularly PNS/BAFS 198:2017 –
Code of Practice for the Packaging and Transport of Fresh Fruits and
Vegetables, provide guidelines on the proper handling, storage, packaging,
and distribution of fresh produce. These standards emphasize the
importance of pre-cooling, sanitation, proper storage temperatures,
controlled atmosphere, and appropriate packaging and transport systems
to ensure fruit quality from farm to market.

Therefore, effective postharvest handling of avocado is essential to

extend shelf life, maintain nutritional and sensory quality, and minimize
postharvest losses. By following proper harvesting, sorting, cleaning, pre-
cooling, packaging, and storage protocols, farmers and traders can meet
consumer demands, comply with quality standards, and enhance
profitability in both domestic and international markets.

According to FAO‐derived Helgi Library data, the Philippines produced

about 20,076 metric tonnes of avocados in 2022, a slight increase (~1%)

8
over the previous year. While this is modest compared to its peak
production in the early 1990s (~47,000 tonnes), it indicates a stable or
mildly increasing trend. Recently, significant milestones include the
Philippines gaining export access for Hass avocados: to South Korea (market
access effective from late 2023) and, as of November 2024, first
commercial shipments of Hass avocado to Japan. The Philippines also
secured market access to Russia for Hass avocado among other crops. These
developments point to strengthening trade and export potential. Locally,
the variety, quality, and packing‐house standards are being elevated to
meet the requirements of such export markets.

As of current publicly available information, machinery specifically

for avocado in the Philippines is less documented than for staple crops, but
there are important developments in export infrastructure and orchard /
post-harvest management that point toward modernization. First, gaining
market access (e.g. to Japan, Korea, Russia) has necessitated improvements
in packing house standards, quarantine and phytosanitary protocols, fruit
grading and handling to ensure quality during shipment. Second, there is
ongoing R&D internationally (which could be adapted locally) in robotic
harvesting tools — for example designs for end-effectors that can gently
grasp and detach avocados, aerial manipulation systems etc. Though these
are not yet widely used in the Philippines, such technologies show potential
for future adoption, especially in larger orchards. Third, local efforts
probably focus more on improvements in pre-harvest care, better variety
selection (Hass) and cultivation practices, cold storage or ripening rooms,
better packaging and transport, to reduce post-harvest losses and meet
export requirements. The institutional push (Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Plant Industry) in opening export markets implies investments in
these supporting facilities.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Avocado (Persea americana) – A climacteric fruit of tropical origin, valued

for its edible mesocarp rich in oil and nutrients. It continues to ripen after
harvest due to ethylene production and high respiration rate.

Chilling Injury – A physiological disorder that occurs when tropical fruits

like avocado are exposed to temperatures below their tolerance level,
leading to pitting, browning, and poor ripening.

Climacteric Fruit – A type of fruit that exhibits a rapid increase in

respiration and ethylene production after harvest, allowing it to ripen off
the tree (e.g., avocado, mango, banana).

Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage – A postharvest technology where

oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature, and humidity are regulated to slow
down ripening and reduce spoilage.

Packaging – The use of materials such as crates, cartons, or boxes designed

to protect fruits from mechanical damage, contamination, and moisture loss
during storage and transportation.

Philippine National Standards (PNS) – Official quality and safety guidelines

formulated by the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS),
Department of Agriculture, that set requirements for the production,
handling, packaging, and transport of agricultural commodities in the
Philippines.

Physiological Maturity – The stage at which a fruit has completed its

natural development on the tree, is ready for harvest, and can continue
ripening off the plant.

Postharvest Handling – A series of practices applied to crops immediately

after harvest aimed at maintaining quality, extending shelf life, and
reducing losses during storage, distribution, and marketing.

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Pre-cooling – The rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested
produce to slow down respiration, ethylene production, and microbial
activity, thus extending shelf life.

Sorting and Grading – The process of classifying harvested fruits based on

size, shape, color, and quality, and removing defective, damaged, or
diseased fruits to meet market standards.

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POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF AVOCADO

1. Harvesting
 Stage of Harvest: Avocados should be harvested at the
physiological mature stage, when they can ripen properly after
harvest. Indicators include dull skin appearance, characteristic
varietal color (e.g., ‗Hass‘ turning darker), and dry matter content
of about 21–24%.
 Time of Harvest: Fruits are best harvested early in the morning or
late afternoon to avoid heat stress and reduce respiration rates.
 Method:

o Use sanitized pruning shears or clippers.

o Cut the fruit with a short stem (about 5 mm attached) to
prevent sap burn and entry of pathogens.
o Avoid pulling or shaking the tree to prevent mechanical
damage.

 Handling: Place fruits carefully in padded baskets or crates lined

with clean materials. Avoid dropping or piling fruits too high to
minimize bruising.

2. Field Handling and Transport to Packing Area

 Harvested fruits should be transferred immediately to a shaded,
clean area to prevent sun scald and excessive field heat.
 Use clean, sanitized plastic crates or bamboo baskets lined with
paper instead of sacks to reduce compression damage.
 Transport fruits to the packinghouse as soon as possible after
harvest.

3. Sorting and Grading

 Sorting: Remove fruits that are immature, overripe, bruised,
diseased, insect-damaged, or irregularly shaped.
 Grading: According to PNS/BAFS standards, avocados are graded
based on size, shape, and freedom from defects.

o Extra Class – superior quality, uniform, free from defects.

o Class I – good quality, slight defects allowed (e.g., minor skin
blemishes).
o Class II – acceptable quality, more defects allowed but fruit
still marketable.

4. Cleaning and Sanitation

 Washing: Fruits are washed in clean, potable water to remove

dirt, latex, and field contaminants.
 Sanitizing: Wash water should be chlorinated (100–200 ppm free
chlorine) or treated with approved sanitizers. This step reduces

12
 microbial load and prevents postharvest diseases like anthracnose
and stem-end rot.
 Drying: After washing, fruits should be air-dried or placed on
clean drying racks to prevent moisture accumulation.

5. Pre-cooling
 Purpose: To remove field heat and slow down fruit respiration and
ripening.
 Methods:

Forced-air cooling is recommended for large-scale operations.

o
Room cooling can be applied for small-scale farmers.
o
 Conditions:
o Mature-green fruit: 5–13 °C, depending on variety.
o Ripe fruit: 2–4 °C.
o Maintain 90–95% relative humidity to avoid shriveling.

6. Packaging

 Primary Packaging:
o Use clean, food-grade materials such as plastic crates,
bamboo baskets with lining, or corrugated fiberboard boxes.
o Cushioning (foam sheets, shredded paper, or tissue) should
be used to reduce vibration damage during transport.
 Labeling: Packages should be labeled with:
o Product name (―Avocado‖),
o Variety,
o Grade,
o Net weight,
o Source (farm/producer),
o Handling instructions (e.g., ―Handle with care‖ or ―Keep
refrigerated‖).
 Packaging materials must conform to PNS/BAFS 198:2017
requirements to ensure food safety and protection during transit.

7. Storage

 Temperature:
o Mature-green avocados: 5–13 °C (depending on cultivar).
o Ripe avocados: 2–4 °C for up to 1 week.
 Relative Humidity: Maintain at 90–95%.
 Risks: Storage below 5 °C can cause chilling injury (skin browning,
pitting, and poor ripening).
 Controlled Atmosphere (CA): Avocados can be stored in low
oxygen (2–5%) and moderate CO₂ (3–10%) environments to extend
storage life and delay ripening.

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8. Ripening

 Avocados ripen after harvest and can be artificially ripened using

ethylene gas (100 ppm for 24–48 hours at 18–20 °C).
 Ripening chambers or enclosed rooms with proper ventilation are
recommended for uniform ripening.
 Do not use calcium carbide (illegal in the Philippines due to health
hazards).

9. Transport and Distribution

 Transport vehicles must be clean, sanitized, and temperature-

controlled.
 Refrigerated trucks should be used, but only for already precooled
fruits—not as the primary cooling system.
 Packages should be stacked to allow airflow and prevent crushing.
 Handling during loading and unloading should minimize shocks,
vibrations, and compression damage.

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POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF BANANA

15
INTRODUCTION

Banana (Musa spp.) remains

one of the most important tropical
fruit crops worldwide and in the
Philippines. The country consistently
ranks among the top producers and
exporters, with production reaching
over 9 million metric tons annually
across about 451,000 hectares of
land. The Cavendish variety
dominates production, primarily for
export, while Saba (Cardaba) and
Lakatan serve domestic and
processing markets. However,
production has faced recent
challenges, including the spread of
Fusarium wilt (Tropical Race 4) and
Source:[Link]
black Sigatoka disease, declining eat/fruit/bananas/
cultivation areas, and labor shortages.
In 2024, the Philippines slipped to the fourth largest banana exporter
globally, accounting for about 9.64% of total banana exports. Despite these
challenges, bananas remain a vital agricultural commodity due to their
strong demand in both local and international markets.

Nutritionally, bananas are rich in carbohydrates, dietary fiber,

potassium, and vitamin B6, with moderate amounts of magnesium, vitamin
C, and folate. They also contain phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and
antioxidants that contribute to their health benefits (Shakya et al., 2021).
Regular banana consumption supports cardiovascular health by regulating
blood pressure, aids digestion due to its fiber content, and provides
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that may protect against chronic
diseases (Oliveira et al., 2021). Green bananas offer resistant starch, which
supports gut health, while ripe bananas provide quick energy through
natural sugars. Moreover, studies show that banana extracts and by-
products, such as peels and flowers, possess antimicrobial, anti-ulcer, and
anti-diabetic properties, highlighting their potential for functional food and
nutraceutical applications (Zhu et al., 2022).

Recent advancements in banana production and post-harvest handling

increasingly focus on mechanization and technology. Traditionally,
harvesting and processing bananas have been highly labor-intensive, but
research has introduced innovations such as banana picking machines,
cableway transport systems for bunches, and mechanical de-handing devices
designed to separate hands from bunches with reduced damage (Guo et al.,
2020). Machine vision and artificial intelligence now assist in ripeness
classification, defect detection, and disease monitoring, enhancing
efficiency and reducing post-harvest losses (Pawara et al., 2020).
Additionally, specialized washing, grading, and packing machines are
available for industrial-scale operations, while automatic peeling and slicing

16
equipment support banana chip and puree production. In terms of waste
utilization, banana trunk shredders and biomass machines are being adopted
to convert plant residues into compost, feed, or mulch. Although many of
these technologies are still in developmental or trial stages, particularly in
adapting to varying bunch sizes and terrains, they offer promising solutions
to labor constraints and post-harvest inefficiencies in the banana industry.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Banana (Musa spp.) – Tropical fruit harvested at mature green stage for
fresh use or processing.

Grading – Sorting bananas by size, quality, and defects.

Mechanical Damage – Physical injuries like bruises that reduce quality and
shelf life.

Mature Green – Fully grown, firm, green bananas ready for harvest and
storage.

Packing – Using ventilated boxes with cushioning materials to prevent

damage during transport.

Post-Harvest Handling – Steps after harvest to maintain quality and prevent

spoilage, including cleaning, grading, packing, cooling, storing, ripening,
and transporting.

Pre-Cooling – Cooling fruit immediately after harvest to reduce field heat

and delay ripening.

Ripening – Controlled exposure to ethylene gas to turn mature green

bananas into ripe fruit.

Storage – Keeping bananas at controlled temperature and humidity to

extend shelf life.

Washing – Cleaning bananas to remove dirt, latex, and reduce microbes.

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POST HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF BANANA

1. Harvesting

 Use sanitized tools to avoid contamination.

 Harvested bunches should not touch the soil.
 In areas without cableways, hands are removed from the bunch stem
and placed in padded harvesting trays.
 Harvested bunches should undergo post-harvest processing and
cooling within 24 hours to maintain quality.

2. Sorting and Grading

 Bananas are sorted based on size, ripeness, and quality.

 Damaged or diseased fruits are removed to ensure only high-quality
produce reaches the market.

3. Washing and Sanitizing

 Bananas are washed to remove dust, dirt, and potential

contaminants.
 Sanitizing agents may be used in the wash or rinse water to further
reduce microbial load.

4. Packaging

 Bananas are carefully packed in suitable containers to minimize

mechanical damage.
 Each box should be identified with traceability codes, including time
and day of packing, packing house number, and grower code.
 Boxes are stacked appropriately to prevent crushing and ensure
ventilation.

5. Transport

 Transport vehicles should be clean and free from contaminants.

 Refrigerated vehicles are preferred to maintain optimal temperature
conditions (13°C–14°C).
 Produce should be transported separately from goods that could
cause contamination.

6. Storage

 Stored bananas should be kept in cool, dry conditions to prolong shelf

life.
 Humidity levels should be controlled to prevent premature ripening
or spoilage.

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POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF CABBAGE
(Brassica oleracea var. capitata)

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INTRODUCTION

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea

var. capitata) is a major highland
vegetable crop in the Philippines,
widely grown because of its high
demand, nutritional value, and
economic importance. National
production in 2020 was recorded
at 129,803 metric tons, showing a
1.4% increase compared to the
previous year. The Cordillera
Administrative Region (CAR)
dominates production,
contributing over three-fourths of
the national supply, with Benguet
Province alone producing about
86,000 metric tons or roughly 40% of the country‘s total output. The
province‘s cool climate and high elevation make it ideal for cabbage
cultivation, resulting in yields of 20.95 metric tons per hectare, higher than
the national average of 16.18 metric tons per hectare. Other regions such as
Cagayan Valley and Northern Mindanao are also increasing their
contributions, underscoring the crop‘s role not just as food but also as a
driver of rural income.
Beyond its economic importance, cabbage is highly valued for its
health benefits and nutrient composition. It is rich in vitamin C, which
strengthens immunity, and vitamin K, which supports bone health and
proper blood clotting. Its fiber content promotes good digestion, while its
antioxidants help reduce inflammation and protect against chronic diseases.
Being low in calories yet high in water content, it is also an excellent choice
for weight management.

In recent years, technological improvements have also shaped

cabbage farming. The use of mechanical transplanters, weeders, and
precision irrigation systems has enhanced efficiency and reduced labor
requirements. Likewise, innovations such as cold storage, vacuum cooling,
and refrigerated transport have helped extend shelf life and maintain
quality during distribution. These advances, along with sustained high
demand, ensure that cabbage remains a vital crop for both farmers‘
livelihoods and consumers‘ nutrition in the Philippines.

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DEFINITION 0F TERMS

Field Heat is the natural warmth that cabbage carries from the field
right after harvest, which needs to be removed quickly to prevent it from
wilting or spoiling.

Grading is the sorting of cabbages based on size, weight, and overall

appearance so that they meet market or buyer requirements.

Harvest Maturity is the right stage to harvest cabbage, usually when

the head is already firm, compact, and big enough for the market.

Mechanical Damage is the cuts, bruises, or cracks that cabbage may

get during harvest, handling, or transport, which can make it spoil faster.

Packaging is the process of putting cabbage into containers such as

crates, sacks, or boxes to make handling and transport easier, while also
protecting it from damage.

Pre-Cooling is the process of cooling down freshly harvested cabbage

to remove field heat and slow down its aging, helping it last longer.

Post-Harvest Handling is the set of steps done to cabbage after it is

harvested to keep it fresh, safe, and of good quality until it reaches
consumers.

Shelf Life is the amount of time cabbage can stay fresh and
marketable under certain conditions before it starts to lose quality.

Storage is the keeping of harvested cabbage in a cool and well-

maintained place to preserve freshness and reduce losses before it is sold or
consumed.

Trimming is the simple act of removing dirty, damaged, or excess

leaves from cabbage to make it cleaner and more attractive for selling.

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POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF CABBAGE

1. Sorting and Grading

• Varietal Classification

- Highland Varieties: Savoy (curly light-green leaves), White (rounded

heads), Red (reddish leaves).
- Lowland Variety: Flat, light-green heads.

• Size Classification

Small: < 0.50 kg

Medium: 0.51–1.0 kg

Large: 1.1–1.5 kg

Extra Large: > 1.5 kg

• Quality Grades

Grade 1: Compact, clean, uniform heads; ≤ 4 wrapper leaves; trimmed

stem within 1.5 cm; free from decay, insect damage, tip burn, or
mechanical injury.

Grade 2: Fairly well-trimmed, similar to Grade 1 but allows slight defects.

Grade 3: Lower quality; minor defects permitted (≤ 10% of head surface).

• Tolerance for Defects

Grade 1: ≤ 5%

Grade 2: ≤ 10%
Grade 3: ≤ 15%

2. Trimming

• Limit outer wrapper leaves to a maximum of four.

• Cut stem 1.5 cm below the wrapper leaves to maintain freshness and
reduce decay.

3. Packing
• Use clean, sturdy plastic or wooden crates (or equivalent containers).

• Maximum load per container: 25 kg.

• Containers must provide ventilation and protection against compression,

contamination, and injury.

23
4. Precooling

• Cool cabbages immediately after harvest to remove field heat.

• Recommended methods: room cooling, forced-air cooling, hydrocooling,
vacuum cooling, or package icing.

• Precooling reduces respiration, maintains crispness, and extends shelf life.

5. Transport

• Use clean, well-ventilated, and preferably refrigerated vehicles.

• Protect produce from direct sunlight, rain, and soil contamination.

• Stack properly to ensure airflow and minimize mechanical damage.

6. Storage (Optional)

• For market extension, store cabbages at 0–1°C with 90–95% relative

humidity.

• Under ideal cold storage, cabbages can last several weeks while
maintaining quality.

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POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF CACAO

25
INTRODUCTION

Cacao (Theobroma cacao

L.) is a high-value tropical crop
of increasing importance to
Philippine agriculture and rural
livelihoods: suitable climate and
soils have allowed cocoa to
become a specialty export
commodity (particularly ―fine-
flavour‖ cacao) and a priority
under the Philippine Cacao
Industry Roadmap 2021–2025,
which aims to raise productivity,
improve bean quality, and
expand value-adding processing
across farming communities
(Department of Agriculture,
2021/2023). National statistics
show cacao remains a relatively small but growing crop in volume: recent
Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) data report production on the order of a
few thousand metric tons (with Mindanao/Davao regions accounting for the
large majority of output), and quarterly surveys in 2025 indicate production
improvements compared with previous years.
Cacao beans are composed primarily of fat (cocoa butter ~50–57% in
the seed), carbohydrates (≈30–40%), protein (~11–15%), dietary fiber, and a
range of minerals (magnesium, iron, potassium, phosphorus) and bioactive
compounds; the seed‘s polyphenols (notably flavonoids such as epicatechin
and procyanidins) are largely responsible for its antioxidant properties.
These flavonoids and other bioactives have been associated in numerous
studies with cardiovascular and metabolic benefits (improved endothelial
function and nitric oxide bioavailability, reduced inflammation, and
potential favorable effects on insulin sensitivity), though processing
(fermentation, roasting, alkalization) and addition of sugar/fats in finished
products reduce the concentration and thus the net health impact of
commercial chocolate. Quality of Philippine cacao depends critically on
proper post-harvest handling (selection, hygienic fermentation, controlled
drying to ~6–7.5% moisture, sorting/grading and safe storage) as specified in
the Philippine National Standard (PNS/BAFPS 104:2011 and related PNS
product specifications), which aim to minimize defects and
chemical/microbial hazards (e.g., ochratoxin A).

In recent years local research and government agencies (DOST,

PhilMech, PCAARRD, DA) have promoted and deployed appropriate
technologies — from hygienic fermentary boxes and greenhouse/solar-type
dryers (and multi-purpose solar drying trays like Portasol) to automated
combined demucilager-fermenter-dryer prototypes, small roasters and
grinders, and portable value-adding machinery — to raise efficiency, shorten
processing time, and improve bean quality for both domestic processors and

26
exporters. Altogether, while Philippine cacao production still faces
challenges (fragmented smallholder systems, need for varietal
improvement, pest/disease pressure, and infrastructure gaps), the
combined policy focus (Cacao Industry Roadmap), standards (PNS), localized
innovations, and targeted machinery support provide a clear pathway for
improving both volume and the premium quality that positions Filipino
cacao in niche fine-flavour markets.

27
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) – A tropical perennial tree cultivated for its
seeds, which are processed into cocoa and chocolate products.

Fine-Flavor Cacao – A category of premium cacao recognized by the

International Cocoa Organization (ICCO) for its unique flavor profile and
aroma, often used in specialty chocolates.

Cacao Butter – The natural fat content of cacao beans (approximately 50–
57%), widely used in chocolate manufacturing and cosmetic industries.

Polyphenols – Plant-derived bioactive compounds abundant in cacao beans,

with antioxidant properties that help protect the body from oxidative stress
and inflammation.

Flavonoids – A group of polyphenolic compounds in cacao, including

epicatechin and procyanidins, associated with cardiovascular and metabolic
health benefits.

Fermentation – A critical postharvest process of cacao lasting 5–7 days,

where microbial activity breaks down pulp, develops flavor precursors, and
reduces bitterness in beans.

Drying – A postharvest activity that reduces the moisture content of cacao

beans to 6–7.5%, ensuring safe storage and preventing mold contamination.

Philippine National Standard (PNS/BAFPS 104:2011) – A code of practice

that sets guidelines for the postharvest handling, fermentation, drying,
grading, and storage of cacao beans in the Philippines.

Cacao Industry Roadmap (2021–2025) – A government policy framework

that outlines strategies to increase cacao production, improve quality, and
enhance competitiveness in both domestic and international markets.

Cacao Postharvest Machinery – Technologies such as hygienic fermentary

boxes, solar dryers, demucilagers, and automated fermenter-dryer units
28
introduced by agencies like DOST, PhilMech, and PCAARRD to improve
efficiency and bean quality.

29
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF CACAO

Selection & Sorting of Pods and Beans

 Only ripe pods are to be harvested; overripe, infested, germinated or

moldy pods are to be discarded.
 After fermentation and drying, beans are sorted by defect types; broken
beans, flat beans, fragments, and foreign matter must be removed.

Fermentation

 Normally 5 days of fermentation.

 Fermentation beds or boxes should be designed to allow drainage of
fermentation drippings, good air circulation and ease of turning. Boxes
or baskets should have covers to maintain heat and avoid contamination
from rain or airborne foreign matter.

Drying

 The standard specifies reduction of moisture content from around 45%

to about 7% moisture as ideal.
 Drying methods: preferentially solar or sun-drying; in Philippine
conditions, a combination of sun-drying for 1-2 days (or certain hours
per day) followed by artificial/mechanical drying is used.
 Beans must be turned several times daily during drying to ensure
uniform drying.

Grading & Quality Specification

 The beans should be adequately fermented and dried. They must be

uniformly sized, reasonably free from broken pieces or shell fragments,
and virtually free from foreign matter or insects.
 Moisture content should not exceed 7.5% in the final dried beans.
 Beans should be free from adulteration and off-odors not characteristic
of properly fermented and dried beans.

Packaging, Storage, and Handling

 After drying and grading, proper packaging is recommended to preserve

quality. This includes keeping beans dry, protected from moisture,
pests, and contamination. (While the specific standard for packaging is
more general in PNS/BAFS 58:2008, the code of practice underscores
these needs.)

30
POST HARVEST HANDLING OF COCONUT
(Cocos nucifera L.)

31
INTRODUCTION

The coconut (Cocos

nucifera L.) industry is central to
Philippine agriculture and rural
livelihoods. According to PSA
data, coconut (with husk)
production for April–June 2023
reached about 3.41 million
metric tons, marking a 1.5%
increase from the same period in
2022. The area planted with
coconut is also expanding: from
January to June 2023, the total
planted area was about 3.62
million hectares, slightly up from
3.59 million ha the previous year.
However, despite export strength, the [Link]
Philippines has slipped to second in total .com/health-benefits-of-
coconut production globally, with Indonesia [Link]
producing about 17.13 million
metric tons in 2024 versus the Philippines‘ 14.77 million metric tons.

Coconut is valued not only for its economic importance but also for
its nutritional profile and health benefits. The young or green coconut‘s
water is naturally hydrating and contains essential minerals, electrolytes,
and moderate carbohydrates, making it an excellent drink for hydration.
The meat (kernel) of mature coconut is rich in fats—especially medium-
chain triglycerides (MCTs)—fiber, several minerals (such as manganese,
copper, iron, potassium, phosphorus), and a modest amount of protein.
These nutritional components contribute to a range of health claims:
antioxidant activity, support for digestive health, possible benefits for
cardiovascular lipids (e.g. raising HDL), and providing energy. Nevertheless,
the high saturated fat content means moderation is advised.

In response to both domestic and global demand, and to strengthen

competitiveness, there have been recent efforts to modernize coconut post-
harvest and processing infrastructure. For example, PHilMech has turned
over a ₱38-million coconut processing center in Marinduque for white
copra and refined-bleached-deodorized oil, designed to process up to 5,000
coconut nuts per batch (approx. 75,000 nuts monthly). Its outputs per cycle
include roughly 1,250 kg of white copra, 750 kg crude oil, and 735 kg refined
oil, with a high recovery rate of 98% There are also innovations such as a
power-operated rotary coconut husking machine (from Kerala Agricultural
University) that handles green and dry coconuts of various sizes with lower
breakage and greater throughput, which reflects the kind of machinery that
could benefit coconut operations if adopted more widely.

32
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

A perennial crop known as the ―Tree of Life,‖ cultivated for its fruit, which
provides food, drink, oil, fiber, and other industrial products.

Harvesting

The process of collecting mature coconuts (usually 11–12 months after

flowering) from the palm using tools such as pole cutters, scythes, or
climbing techniques, ensuring minimal damage to nuts and trees.

Sorting / Grading

The practice of grouping coconuts according to maturity, size, and quality

while removing nuts that are cracked, immature, pest-infested, or
otherwise unsuitable for consumption or processing.

Cleaning / Sanitization

Removing dirt, husk fibers, and contaminants from coconuts, as well as

maintaining hygiene in tools, containers, and storage facilities in
accordance with GAP protocols.

Packaging
The process of placing coconuts in clean, sturdy, and stackable containers
(e.g., sacks, crates, or cartons) that are appropriately labeled with
producer information, volume, and grade.

Transport
The safe movement of coconuts from farms to markets or processing
facilities using covered, stable, and clean vehicles, arranged to avoid
damage and contamination.

33
Storage Facilities

Designated areas where coconuts are kept before sale or processing, which
should be clean, ventilated, dry, and free from animals and pests.

Copra

The dried kernel (meat) of mature coconuts, used as the primary raw
material for producing crude and refined coconut oil.

Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO)

A high-value oil product obtained from fresh coconut meat without chemical
refining; valued for its purity and health benefits.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)

A set of standards under PNS/BAFS 238:2018 that provide guidelines for

safe, sustainable, and quality-oriented farming, harvesting, and handling of
coconuts.

Personal Hygiene and Sanitation

Measures undertaken by workers to maintain cleanliness—such as

handwashing, wearing proper clothing, and using clean equipment—to
prevent contamination during coconut handling.

Post-Harvest Handling

All activities applied to coconuts after harvesting—including sorting,

cleaning, packaging, storage, transport, and facility hygiene—with the goal
of preserving quality, reducing losses, and ensuring food safety.

Processing
The conversion of coconuts into value-added products such as copra,
coconut oil, desiccated coconut, coconut water, sugar, and other
derivatives through mechanical or technological means.

34
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES FOR COCONUT

1. Harvesting

 Collect only mature coconuts (11–12 months for tall varieties; 10–11
months for hybrids).
 Use proper tools (pole cutters, knives, scythes) or trained climbers with
safety gear.
 Avoid letting nuts fall freely; use nets or ropes to prevent cracks.
 Place harvested coconuts in clean, shallow containers (≤ 25 kg when
full) to avoid piling damage.

2. Sorting / Grading

 Sort immediately in shaded, cool, and clean areas.

 Remove immature, cracked, pest-infested, or diseased nuts.
 Group coconuts according to:
 Size and weight (uniformity for markets).
 Maturity (mature for copra and oil, young for fresh consumption).
 End use (copra, VCO, desiccated coconut, coconut water).
 Follow PNS grading standards (e.g., PNS/BAFS 65:2024 for young
coconuts).

[Link] / Sanitization

 Remove husk fibers, dust, and soil manually or with brushes.

 Wash young coconuts with potable water to remove sap stains.
 Clean containers, tools, and handling areas regularly.
 Separate rejects from good nuts to avoid contamination.

4. Packaging

 Use sturdy, ventilated packaging such as plastic crates, sacks, cartons,

or woven baskets.
 Cushion young coconuts with banana leaves, paper, or padding to
prevent scratches.
 Avoid overfilling sacks or crates to prevent cracking.
 Label containers with product name, grade, weight, source, and
“Product of the Philippines.”

5. Storage Facilities

 Store in dry, shaded, and well-ventilated areas to prevent mold and

sprouting.
 Keep coconuts off the ground using pallets or raised platforms.
 Separate copra storage from fresh coconuts.
 Maintain facilities free from pests, rodents, and livestock.
 Dispose husk waste and rejects properly to avoid attracting insects.

6. Transport
35
 Use covered, clean, and stable vehicles (trucks, carts, boats).
 Arrange coconuts carefully to minimize vibration and pressure damage.
 Use crates or sacks rather than bulk loading for long-distance transport.
 Follow hygienic practices during loading and unloading.

7. Distribution

 Deliver coconuts to local markets, processors, or export points

depending on demand.
 Maintain traceability by documenting sources, grades, and handling
practices.
 Ensure products meet market and export quality standards (PNS and
Codex guidelines).
 For export, comply with packaging, labeling, and phytosanitary
regulations.
 Coordinate with cooperatives, traders, and processors to ensure timely
delivery and reduced losses.

36
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF COFFEE

37
INTRODUCTION

Coffee (genus Coffea,

especially Coffea arabica and
Coffea canephora [Robusta]) is one
of the world‘s most traded
agricultural commodities and a
central beverage in countless
cultures. It is grown mainly in
tropical and subtropical zones –
often referred to as the ―coffee
belt‖ – where elevation, rainfall,
temperature, and soil conditions
favor bean quality. Coffee
cherries, once harvested, undergo
processing (wet or dry), drying,
milling/hulling, roasting, grinding,
and brewing. Each of these stages
influences the bean‘s flavor profile, aroma, and chemical composition.
Coffee‘s importance extends beyond taste and culture: it is a major source
of income for millions of smallholder farmers, supports rural economies, and
has become a focus of sustainability efforts (in terms of environment, fair
trade, traceability, and climate resilience).

Globally, coffee production continues to grow, though unevenly

across species and regions. For the 2023/24 coffee year, global production
was projected at around 171–178 million 60-kg bags, with increases in
Arabica supply largely driven by key producers like Brazil, Colombia, and
Ethiopia offsetting declines in some robusta-dominant regions. South
America remains dominant, with Brazil leading production both in Arabica
and increasingly in robusta as well. Vietnam continues to be a major robusta
producer, while countries such as Indonesia, Colombia, and Ethiopia
contribute significantly, especially in specialty or high-altitude Arabica.
Challenges remain: climate change (droughts, irregular rainfall,
temperature extremes), pest and disease pressures, labor shortages, and
rising input costs affect productivity and profitability. Additionally, some
reports suggest that supply deficits are likely in the near term until new
planted areas reach maturity.

Coffee is a complex beverage in terms of chemistry: aside from

caffeine (its most well-known stimulant), its beans contain a variety of
bioactive compounds including chlorogenic acids, polyphenols, diterpenes
(such as cafestol and kahweol), small amounts of vitamins (e.g., B
vitamins), and minerals (e.g., potassium, magnesium). These compounds
contribute to numerous health effects. Moderate coffee consumption has
been associated with improved alertness and cognitive function, reduced
risk of type 2 diabetes, protection against certain neurodegenerative
diseases (like Parkinson‘s and Alzheimer‘s), possible reduced risk of some
cancers, support for liver health, and potential lifespan extension. Coffee is
also rich in antioxidants, which help counter oxidative stress and

38
inflammation. On the other hand, high intake (especially with high added
sugar or unfiltered forms) may have downsides: elevated cholesterol (with
certain brewing methods), sleep disturbance, anxiety, or adverse effects for
sensitive individuals. Thus, benefits depend on dose, preparation method,
and individual health context.

Mechanization and digital technologies are becoming more important

in modern coffee production as producers seek greater efficiency, lower
labor dependence, better consistency, and higher bean quality. Recent
advances include sophisticated mechanical harvesters (self-propelled or
tractor-pulled) capable of working on sloped terrain, with systems to reduce
damage to plants and cherries. For example, Brazilian company Jacto has
introduced harvesters (like the AK 3000 and K 3000 series) with automatic
leveling and alignment systems so that the machine maintains optimal
orientation even on sloping ground; these have been used for both Arabica
and robusta (Conilon) types. Also, Oxbo has updated models (e.g. the Oxbo
9240+) designed for versatility (young to mature plants; arabica or robusta),
with shaking/stripping systems, cherry catching & cleaning, and operator
comfort / visibility to improve performance and reduce loss/damage. Other
machinery improvements include more efficient pulper machines, more
energy-efficient / electric models, better integration of sensors/IoT for
performance monitoring, and modular designs so smaller farms can scale up.
Innovations in secondary processing are also notable: optical colour sorters,
gravity separators, destoners, polishing machines, and moisture meters to
ensure quality control. Beyond mechanical hardware, there is growing use of
computer vision, AI / machine learning to monitor plant health, predict
yield, detect pests (e.g. leaf rust) early, and guide selective harvesting.

39
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Arabica – A species of coffee plant (Coffea arabica) known for producing

high-quality, smooth, and aromatic coffee. Most specialty coffees are made
from Arabica beans.

Barista – A person trained in preparing and serving espresso-based coffee

drinks. Skilled baristas often perform milk steaming and latte art.

Cappuccino – An espresso-based drink with equal parts of espresso, steamed

milk, and milk foam, known for its rich and creamy texture.

Cold Brew – A brewing method where coffee grounds are steeped in cold
water for an extended period (usually 12–24 hours), producing a smooth,
low-acid drink.

Crema – The golden, creamy layer on top of a well-pulled espresso shot,

formed by emulsified oils and carbon dioxide. It indicates freshness and
quality.

Espresso – A concentrated coffee brewed by forcing hot water under

pressure through finely-ground coffee. It‘s the base for many coffee drinks
like lattes and cappuccinos.

Latte – A coffee drink made with one shot of espresso and steamed milk,
topped with a small amount of milk foam.

Robusta – A coffee species (Coffea canephora) known for its strong, bitter
flavor and higher caffeine content. Often used in instant coffee and
espresso blends.

Roast Level – The degree to which coffee beans are roasted, typically
classified as light, medium, or dark. It affects flavor, aroma, and body of
the coffee.

Single Origin – Coffee sourced from one location, farm, or region. It often
has unique flavor characteristics specific to its origin.
40
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF COFFEE

Harvesting
Ripe coffee cherries are carefully handpicked or mechanically harvested.
Proper selection ensures only mature cherries are processed, which directly
affects the final flavor quality.
Sorting and Cleaning

After harvesting, the cherries are sorted to remove unripe, overripe, or

damaged ones. They are then washed to remove dirt, leaves, and other
debris.

Pulping

This process removes the outer skin (pulp) of the coffee cherry to expose
the beans. It is typically done using a pulping machine.

Fermentation

The beans, still covered in a sticky mucilage, are fermented in water tanks
for 12–48 hours (wet process) to break down the mucilage. Proper
fermentation is crucial for flavor development.

Washing
After fermentation, the beans are washed thoroughly to remove any
remaining mucilage.

Drying
Beans are dried either naturally (sun-dried on patios or raised beds) or
mechanically to reduce moisture content to around 10–12%. This is critical
to prevent mold and ensure storage stability.
Hulling

The dried beans, known as parchment coffee, are hulled to remove the
parchment layer (in wet processing) or dried husk (in dry processing).
Polishing (optional)

Some processors polish the beans to remove any remaining silver skin. This
is optional and mainly for appearance.
Grading and Sorting

Beans are graded based on size, weight, and quality. Defective beans are
removed. This step ensures uniform roasting and high-quality output.
Storage
Green coffee beans are stored in cool, dry, and well-ventilated conditions to
maintain freshness until they are shipped or roasted.

41
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF CORN

42
INTRODUCTION

Corn, or maize, stands as

the second most vital crop in the
Philippines, essential for both
human food security (white corn)
and the critical livestock and
poultry industries (yellow corn). It
is valued globally as a
fundamental starchy staple and a
versatile raw material used in the
production of various consumer
products such as oil, flour, and
syrup.

However, the post-harvest chain

for corn presents significant
challenges that compromise the quality and safety of the final product. The
grain‘s inherently high susceptibility to moisture-induced mold growth often
leads to widespread contamination, primarily by the mycotoxin known as
aflatoxin.

Effective post-harvest management is particularly crucial in regions

where smallholder farmers rely on corn as a primary source of income and
food security. Losses during this phase can significantly impact livelihoods,
exacerbate food shortages, and undermine efforts to improve agricultural
productivity. Therefore, understanding and implementing best practices in
post-harvest handling is essential for sustainable agriculture. Moreover, as
global demand for corn continues to rise, minimizing post-harvest losses
becomes increasingly important. Reducing waste not only increases the
availability of corn for consumption and industrial use but also contributes
to environmental sustainability by optimizing resource utilization.
Innovations in post-harvest technology and management play a vital role in
meeting the growing demand while minimizing the environmental footprint
of corn production.
Furthermore, post-harvest activities are not limited to the physical
handling of the grain; they also encompass critical aspects of marketing and
distribution. Farmers must have access to reliable market information,
efficient transportation networks, and fair pricing mechanisms to ensure
that their crops reach consumers in a timely and cost-effective manner. The
integration of modern technologies, such as remote sensing, data analytics,
and mobile applications, offers new opportunities to enhance the efficiency
and transparency of post-harvest corn management systems. These
technologies can provide farmers with real-time information on crop
conditions, market prices, and best practices, enabling them to make more
informed decisions and optimize their post-harvest operations.

43
Current Status of Production (2024-2025 Estimates)

National corn production in the Philippines is projected at

approximately 8.33 million metric tons (MT) harvested from about 2.45
million hectares of land for the 2024-2025 marketing year. Production
remains stable, with agricultural efforts focusing on increasing the yield per
hectare (T/Ha) to meet the growing domestic demand, particularly from the
feed industry, which relies heavily on yellow corn. Yellow corn consistently
accounts for the larger share of national output compared to white corn.
Health Benefits and Composition

Corn is considered a nutrient-dense whole grain that offers several

health advantages. It is an excellent source of dietary fiber, which is crucial
for aiding digestion and promoting cardiovascular health. Furthermore, corn
provides high levels of essential B vitamins, including Folate, Thiamine, and
Niacin. Notably, yellow corn is rich in the powerful antioxidant‘s lutein and
zeaxanthin, compounds that are essential for supporting eye health by
protecting the retina against macular degeneration. The grain also supplies
important minerals such as Magnesium, Phosphorus, and Potassium.
Recent Machineries

The Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and

Mechanization (PHilMech) and local manufacturers are actively promoting
and developing specialized machinery to mechanize critical post-harvest
steps, significantly reducing manual labor, time, and quality losses.

1. Mechanical Grain Dryers: Modern dryers, such as Batch and

Continuous Flow Dryers (e.g., GRAINPRO OGD-SERIES), are rapidly
replacing contamination-prone sun drying methods. These mechanical
units use automated sensors and controlled hot air for precise and
uniform drying, which is essential to achieving the 14% MC quickly.
This makes them the most effective single tool in the field for
aflatoxin prevention.
2. PHilMech-developed Corn Sheller: This equipment is locally
designed for high capacity, handling between 2.0 and 2.5 tons of corn
per hour, even with moisture content up to 35%. Its core impact is
minimizing grain damage, limiting damaged kernels to approximately
2%. By reducing mechanical injury, it translates directly into better
grade quality and a lower risk of fungal contamination.
3. Corn Combine Harvester: A multifunctional machine crucial for large
farms and addressing labor shortages, as it performs harvesting,
dehusking, shelling, and cleaning in a single pass. While highly
efficient, its operation requires careful calibration to minimize grain
losses.

44
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Aflatoxin

A highly toxic metabolite produced by molds (Aspergillus species). The

absolute maximum permissible limit for food-grade corn in the Philippines.

Corn (Zea mays L.)

An annual cereal grain cultivated for its seeds (kernels), classified primarily
into Yellow Corn (mostly feed) and White Corn (mostly food).

Damaged Kernels

Kernels that are materially discolored or damaged by internal or external

factors, including heat, molds, insects, or fermentation.

Drying

The critical post-harvest process of rapidly reducing MC to \le 14\% to

prevent mold growth and subsequent Aflatoxin production.

Foreign Matter

All material present in the corn lot other than the corn kernels themselves,
such as dust, dirt, stones, chaff, or other crop seeds.

Harvesting

The collection of mature corn ears or shelling of the grain. For corn to be
shelled, the moisture content is ideally a maximum of 28% to minimize
losses.

Moisture Content (MC)

The percentage of water present in the corn kernel. The maximum allowed
MC for safe storage and all quality grades of shelled corn is 14.0%.

45
PNS/BAFS 20:2018

The Philippine National Standard for the Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
for Corn, a code that covers production, harvesting, and on-farm post-
harvest handling.

Shelling

The mechanical separation of the kernels from the cob. It is best done after
initial drying (pre-drying) to reduce kernel breakage.

46
POST-HARVEST HANDLING ACTIVITIES OF CORN

Harvesting & Dehusking (PNS/BAFS 20:2018):

 Practices must prevent physical damage and contamination.

 The maximum moisture content (MC) of corn ears for efficient
harvest and shelling is 28%.
 Dehusking must occur immediately after harvest.
Drying (Moisture Reduction) (PNS/BAFS 27:2018):

 Requires a Two-Stage Drying approach.

 Matured corn must be pre-dried within 24 hours of harvest to less
than or equal to 20% MC to prevent breakage during shelling.
 The final dried shelled corn must achieve a maximum of 14% MC for
safe storage.
Shelling (PNS/BAFS 10:2017):

 Shelling must occur after the first stage of drying less than or equal
to 20%.
 Machinery must be maintained to limit mechanically damaged kernels
to a maximum of 3.0% to prevent fungal entry.
Grading & Classification (PNS/BAFS 10:2017):

 Grains are classified (flint, dent, waxy) and graded (Premium, No. 1,
No. 2) based on quality factors.
 Maximum allowable Aflatoxin is strictly 20 ppb for human food.
Storage, Packaging & Labeling (PNS/BAFS GWP):

 Storage must maintain the grain at 14% MC or less.

 Storage areas must be properly ventilated and protected from pests.
 Packaging (e.g., food-grade polyethylene bags) and labeling must
comply with PNS standards.

47
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
CUCUMBER

48
INTRODUCTION

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus

L.), is a monoecious annual
vegetable belonging to the
Cucurbitaceous family with
creeping (trailing) vines up to 5
cm long. The leaves are
triangular-ovate and 8-14 cm
long; flowers are staminate and
pistillate, occasionally
hermaphrodite, about 2-3 cm
across. The fruits are usually
cylindrical, 10-30 cm long, more
or less rounded in cross-section.
The Philippine National
Standard for Cucumber (PNS-BAFPS 62:2008) is the official standard for fresh
cucumbers in the Philippines, established by the Bureau of Agriculture and
Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS) to define quality, grading, and safety
requirements for consumers. The standard outlines classification into three
classes (Extra, Class I, and Class II) based on characteristics like shape,
color, and defects, and provides requirements for size, quality tolerances,
and proper packaging and labeling.

In the Philippines, cucumber production has been steadily increasing,

with about 14.1 kilotonnes harvested in 2022, though the country still ranks
low globally in terms of output. It is grown both in open fields and in
controlled environments, with provinces like Nueva Ecija supporting local
supply for processing companies such as Unilever. Cucumbers are composed
of about 95–96% water, making them highly hydrating and low in calories,
while also providing essential vitamins (A, C, K, and B-complex) and
minerals like potassium, magnesium, and manganese. They are rich in
antioxidants and dietary fiber, which support digestion, skin health, blood
sugar regulation, and overall wellness. In terms of technology, recent
developments in the Philippines include the use of protected cultivation
such as greenhouses and hydroponics, automated fertigation and climate-
control systems, drip irrigation, and the adoption of plastic mulching with
mechanized mulch installers to improve efficiency. However, vegetable
mechanization remains limited compared to rice and corn, with many
cucumber farms still relying on manual labor, though initiatives from the
Department of Agriculture and PhilMech continue to promote modern farm
equipment and sustainable practices.

49
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) – A monoecious annual vegetable from the

Cucurbitaceae family, with trailing vines, triangular-ovate leaves, yellow
flowers, and cylindrical fruits.

Classification (Extra, Class I, Class II) – Grading categories of cucumber

based on size, shape, color, and presence of defects.

Creeping Vines – Long, trailing stems of cucumber plants that spread along
the ground or climb when supported.

Cross-section – The internal view of a cucumber fruit when cut across,

usually showing its rounded shape.

Cucurbitaceae – A plant family also known as the gourd family, which

includes cucumber, squash, melon, and pumpkin.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) – Farming standards that ensure

cucumbers are produced safely and sustainably, focusing on quality, safety,
and environmental care.

Hermaphrodite Flowers – Flowers that have both male and female

reproductive parts.

Monoecious – A plant that bears both male (staminate) and female

(pistillate) flowers on the same plant.

Packaging and Labeling – Standard requirements to ensure cucumbers are

properly packed and labeled for quality assurance and consumer safety.

Philippine National Standard for Cucumber (PNS-BAFPS 62:2008) – The

official guideline set by the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product
Standards that defines the quality, grading, packaging, and labeling of
cucumbers in the Philippines.

Pistillate Flowers – Female flowers that develop into fruits after pollination

50
Staminate Flowers – Male flowers that produce pollen.

Quality Tolerance – The allowable limit of minor defects in cucumbers

under each classification without affecting marketability.

51
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF CUCUMBER

Harvesting – Cucumber fruits are harvested at the proper maturity stage

(usually 10–15 days after flowering) using careful handpicking to avoid
bruises and scratches.

Sorting and Grading – Fruits are sorted based on size, shape, color, and
absence of defects. They are then graded into classes (Extra, Class I, Class
II) following standards like PNS-BAFPS 62:2008.

Cleaning/Washing – Cucumbers are washed to remove dirt, field heat, and

possible pesticide residues, ensuring they are safe for consumption.

Curing/Drying – Excess surface moisture is removed by air drying to prevent

microbial growth and spoilage.

Packaging – Fruits are packed in ventilated crates, cartons, or plastic

containers with protective lining to avoid mechanical damage during
transport.

Storage – Cucumbers are stored under cool, humid conditions (10–13 °C, 90–
95% RH) to slow down water loss and maintain freshness.

Transportation – Proper handling and cushioned transport are ensured to

minimize bruising and maintain market quality.

Marketing/Distribution – Finally, cucumbers are delivered to markets,

supermarkets, or processing centers following food safety and labeling
requirements.

52
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
EGGPLANT

53
 INTRODUCTION

Eggplant (Solanum
melongena L.), locally known as
―talong,‖ is one of the most
widely consumed and cultivated
vegetables in the Philippines. It
serves as a staple ingredient in
many Filipino dishes and provides
livelihood to thousands of farmers
nationwide. With the increasing
demand in both local and
international markets, there is a
need to maintain high-quality
standards to ensure consumer
safety, product uniformity, and
market competitiveness. Eggplant
production worldwide is about 59–
61 million tons annually, with China and India as top producers. Yields
average 30–32 tons/ha, with relatively stable harvested area (~2 million
ha). In the Philippines, Bt eggplant was recently approved, reducing
pesticide dependence and increasing yield potential.

The Philippine National Standard for Eggplant (PNS/BAFPS 52:2007)

was developed by the Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Agriculture and
Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS) in response to this issue. This standard
offers methodical instructions for labeling, packaging, sampling, grading,
and classifying fresh eggplants that are meant for human consumption. It
sets tolerances for flaws and size variations in addition to establishing
minimum standards for quality, such as firmness, cleanliness, and decay
resistance. Farmers and traders are guided in growing and handling
eggplants that satisfy export and domestic quality standards by putting
these standards into practice. Additionally, customers can be sure that the
produce they purchase is fresh, safe, and consistently high-quality. Finally,
by encouraging sound agricultural and postharvest methods, lowering
postharvest losses, and guaranteeing competitiveness in the market, the
standard boosts the Philippine vegetable industry.

Eggplant is a low-calorie, nutrient-dense vegetable offering

significant fiber, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Raw
eggplant (100 g) gives roughly 20-30 calories, under one gram of protein,
minimal fat, ~4-6 g of carbohydrates (including ~2-3 g dietary fiber), and is
rich in potassium, manganese, small amounts of B vitamins, vitamin C,
vitamin K, folate, magnesium, among others. skin contains anthocyanins
(notably nasunin) and other polyphenols which act as antioxidants, helping
protect cells against oxidative stress. Health-wise, eggplant consumption
has been associated with benefits such as improved heart health (lowering
LDL cholesterol and improving lipid profiles), moderation of blood sugar
responses due to its fiber and polyphenol content, potential weight

54
management (because of low energy density and high satiating fiber), and
possible protective effects against inflammation and oxidative damage.

Mechanization and automation in eggplant production are still less

advanced than for some fruit crops due to challenges of fruit fragility,
irregular shapes, and frequent harvesting intervals. However, some recent
work is addressing these. There has been research on the mechanical
properties of eggplant fruits (e.g. resistance to puncture, firmness) under
different field and fertilization treatments, which is important data for
designing harvesting/handling machines that reduce bruising and damage.
Also, there is development of robotic harvesting devices using vision
systems and manipulators: one design includes a three-finger end-effector
that can clamp the fruit, and a cutting mechanism to detach the stem; in
tests such systems achieved high recognition success (e.g. ~97%) in
controlled settings. On the planting and transplanting side, there are
machines for seed planting, seedling tray filling, and transplanters being
used, especially in larger and greenhouse operations, which help improve
uniformity, reduce transplant shock, and reduce labor. Post-harvest
machinery and improved handling systems (storage, packaging,
transportation) are also being studied, especially for reducing losses (which
in some contexts can be large, up to ~50% in vegetables including eggplant)
due to mechanical damage, weight loss, and improper handling.

55
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Badly misshapen – Eggplant that is curved, curled, or twisted causing at

least 5% loss by weight during preparation.

Clean – Eggplant free from stains, dirt, or foreign matter.

Damage – Defects such as holes, insect stings, scars, or insect infestation

penetrating the flesh.

Fairly well-colored – At least 60% of the surface is the typical color of the
variety (purple, green, or white).

Firm – Not soft, flabby, or shriveled.

Overmature – Eggplant past its best eating stage, with spongy flesh and
tough dark brown seeds.

Postharvest- the stage of crop production that begins immediately after

harvest (picking, digging, cutting, or gathering) and continues through
storage, processing, packaging, transport, and marketing, up to the point of
consumption.

Smooth – Reasonably free from ridges or rough surfaces.

Well-trimmed – Peduncle (stem) cut not longer than 40 mm and cleanly

removed.

56
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF EGGPLANT

1. Harvesting
Harvest at the proper maturity stage (not overmature) to maintain firmness,
freshness, and flavor.

2. Sorting and Grading

Separate according to classification (Extra Class, Class I, Class II) based on
shape, size, firmness, and absence of defects.

3. Cleaning
Remove dirt, stains, or foreign matter to meet the ―clean‖ requirement.

4. Packaging

Use containers that ensure proper hygiene, ventilation, and resistance for
handling and transport.

5. Labeling

Each container must include: name of produce and variety, class and size,
net weight, producer/exporter details, and ―Product of the Philippines.‖

6. Storage and Handling

Handle carefully to prevent bruising or cracking.

Store under conditions that prevent decay, deterioration, and
contamination.

7. Transportation
- Use clean, well-ventilated transport vehicles.
- Avoid rough handling and excessive stacking to prevent bruising.

8. Marketing
Deliver to market or distribution centers promptly to maintain freshness and
quality.

57
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF GARLIC

58
INTRODUCTION

Garlic (Allium sativum L.),

locally known as bawang, is one of
the most important spice crops in
the Philippines. It is widely used
as a seasoning, flavoring, and
even as a natural medicine due to
its health-promoting properties.
Because of its high demand in
households, restaurants, and food
industries, garlic plays a vital role
in both local consumption and
trade. Garlic production in the
Philippines remains insufficient,
with domestic output in 2022 at
about 5,885 metric tons meeting
only about 2–5% of the country‘s
demand while roughly 98% of
garlic is still imported.

Garlic, like other agricultural commodities, is highly perishable and

vulnerable to post-harvest losses if not properly managed. Effective post-
harvest handling—including harvesting, curing, storage, and transportation—
is essential to maintain its quality, extend shelf life, and reduce losses. The
Philippine National Standard (PNS/BAFPS 29:2009: Code of Practice for
Garlic) sets guidelines to ensure garlic remains safe, clean, marketable, and
preserves its natural flavor and nutritional value (Bureau of Agriculture and
Fisheries Product Standards, 2009.

Garlic, a polyphenolic and organosulfur-rich nutraceutical spice, has

been consumed since ancient times for its health benefits. Its bioactive
compounds exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering
effects, contributing to the prevention and management of diseases such as
cancer, cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, hypertension, and diabetes,
as demonstrated in various in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. A review of
83 human interventional trials found that garlic consumption modulates
multiple disease biomarkers and is safe when combined with drugs or other
food matrices, often enhancing therapeutic effects, (Khulakpam et al.,
2022). Recent garlic machinery includes harvesters that cut, clean, and pack
in one pass, automatic peeling machines using dry air systems, and
processing lines that separate, slice, and dry garlic for value-added
products.

59
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Curing – Drying garlic bulbs under controlled temperature and humidity to

improve storability and reduce microbial infection (Philippine National
Standards, 2017).

Decay – Deterioration of garlic caused by microbial infection (fungi and

bacteria) during storage (PNS/BAFPS, 2017).

Grading – Classifying garlic bulbs into categories (small, medium, large) for
uniformity in marketing (PNS/BAFPS, 2017).

Packaging – Placing garlic in sacks, baskets, or crates to protect it during

handling and transport (DA-BAR, 2018).

Post-harvest handling – Stage of crop production that involves cleaning,

sorting, curing, packaging, storage, and transport of produce after harvest
(FAO, 2021).

Shelf life – Period during which garlic remains acceptable in quality for
consumption and sale (DA-BAR, 2018).

Sorting – Separating garlic bulbs based on size, shape, and quality to meet
market standards (Bautista & Mabesa, 2019).

Sprouting – Growth of new shoots from stored garlic bulbs, reducing market
value and quality (Bautista & Mabesa, 2019).

Storage – Keeping garlic under controlled conditions (temperature,

humidity, ventilation) to extend shelf life (FAO, 2021).

Weight loss – Reduction in garlic mass due to water loss and respiration
during storage (FAO, 2021).

60
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF GARLIC

1. Harvesting
 Garlic is harvested when 50–75% of the leaves turn yellow or
dry. Careful pulling or digging is done to avoid damage to
bulbs.
2. Cleaning
 Soil and dirt are removed by shaking off or brushing the bulbs.
Washing is avoided as it may encourage microbial growth.
3. Curing
 Bulbs are air-dried in shaded, well-ventilated areas for 2–3
weeks until the outer skins are dry and papery. This reduces
moisture and enhances storage quality.
4. Trimming
 After curing, roots are cut close to the bulb, and stems are
trimmed to 2–3 cm.
5. Sorting and Grading
 Bulbs are separated based on size, shape, and quality (e.g.,
free from damage, pests, or disease).
6. Packaging
 Graded garlic is packed in net bags, sacks, or crates that allow
good ventilation.
7. Storage
 Garlic is stored at 0–2 °C and 65–70% relative humidity for long-
term storage. For short-term storage, it can be kept at
ambient conditions but must be protected from moisture and
sunlight.
8. Transport
 Properly packed garlic is transported using clean, ventilated
vehicles to prevent heating and spoilage.
9. Marketing
 Graded and packaged garlic is distributed to wholesalers,
retailers, or directly to consumers.
10. Processing
 Some garlic may be processed into dehydrated flakes, powder,
or pickled garlic to extend its value and shelf life.

61
POST HARVEST HANDLING OF GRAPES

62
INTRODUCTION

Grapes (Vitis vinifera and

other species) are among the
oldest and most widely cultivated
fruit crops in the world. They are
grown primarily for three main
purposes: fresh consumption as
table grapes, processing into wine,
and drying into raisins. Grapes
thrive in temperate climates and
are typically grown on trained
vines supported by trellis systems.
They are non-climacteric fruits,
meaning they do not ripen after
harvest, so precise timing during
harvest is crucial to ensure optimal
sugar levels and flavor. Over
centuries, grapes have become central to numerous cultural, economic, and
culinary traditions. With global demand for both fresh and processed grape
products, the grape industry continues to evolve, incorporating both
traditional practices and modern innovations.

Globally, grape production has remained stable, with an annual

output of approximately 75 to 80 million tonnes in recent years. China is
currently the leading producer, followed by countries like Italy, France, the
United States, and Spain. The majority of grapes are used for wine
production, while a significant share is also consumed fresh or processed
into raisins and juices. In many regions, there is a growing preference for
seedless grape varieties and a shift towards organic and sustainable farming
practices. While total vineyard area has slightly declined in some countries
due to climate challenges and economic pressures, productivity remains
high through improved cultivation techniques and selective breeding.
Emerging threats like climate change, labor shortages, and pest pressures
continue to shape the dynamics of global grape production.

Grapes are rich in water, natural sugars, fiber, and essential nutrients
such as vitamin K, vitamin C, potassium, and several antioxidants. They
contain a wide range of phytonutrients including resveratrol, flavonoids, and
polyphenols, which are primarily found in the skin and seeds. These
compounds have been linked to various health benefits, including improved
heart health, reduced inflammation, better blood sugar control, and
protection against oxidative stress. Studies have also suggested that grapes
may support cognitive function, aid in digestion, and potentially reduce the
risk of certain chronic diseases like diabetes and cancer. Their high
antioxidant content makes grapes particularly valuable in supporting
cellular health and combating aging-related conditions.

The grape industry has witnessed significant advancements in

mechanization and smart farming technologies aimed at reducing labor

63
dependency and increasing efficiency. Mechanical grape harvesters are now
widely used in many large vineyards, especially in flat terrains, allowing
rapid and efficient fruit collection with minimal damage. In addition to
harvesters, machines for pruning, leaf removal, and shoot thinning have
been developed, streamlining vineyard management tasks. Innovations such
as autonomous robotic pruners, vision-guided harvesters, and drone-based
remote sensing systems are increasingly being integrated into modern
viticulture. These technologies enable precision viticulture—monitoring vine
health, soil moisture, and disease risk in real-time—allowing targeted
interventions. As labor costs rise and environmental challenges grow, the
adoption of these technologies is becoming essential for sustainable and
profitable grape production.

64
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Postharvest Handling – Processes applied to grapes immediately after

harvest to preserve quality.

Physiological Maturity – Stage when grapes reach full development and

optimal sweetness.

Market Maturity – Stage when grapes are suitable for marketing and
consumption.

Sorting – Process of separating grape clusters based on size, color, and

quality.

Grading – Classification of grapes according to Philippine National Standard

specifications.

Packaging – Placing grapes in clean, ventilated, and protective containers

for handling and transport.

Storage – Keeping grapes under proper temperature and humidity to prolong

shelf life.

Transport – Moving grapes carefully from the vineyard to markets or storage

facilities with minimal damage.

Quality Standards – Requirements defined by PNS to ensure grapes meet

consumer acceptability.

Shelf Life – The period grapes remain fresh and suitable for consumption
after harvest.

65
POSTHARVEST ACTIVITIES OF GRAPES

1. Harvesting – Grapes should be harvested at full maturity using sharp

scissors or knives to avoid crushing berries.

2. Cleaning – Remove dirt, damaged berries, and foreign materials by

careful handpicking.
3. Sorting and Grading – Clusters should be sorted and graded based on size,
uniformity, ripeness, and absence of defects.

4. Packaging – Grapes should be packed in small ventilated boxes, trays, or

clamshells to minimize bruising and decay.

5. Storage – Store grapes at 0–2°C with 90–95% relative humidity to slow

down deterioration and preserve freshness.
6. Transport and Distribution – Vehicles must be refrigerated, clean, and not
overloaded to maintain quality during transport.

66
POSTHARVEST HANDLING OF GUAVA

67
INTRODUCTION

Guava (Psidium guajava L.)

is a tropical fruit rich in vitamin C,
dietary fiber, and antioxidants.
Postharvest handling is crucial
since guava is highly perishable
due to its soft texture, high
respiration rate, and susceptibility
to microbial spoilage. Proper
practices can extend its shelf life,
reduce losses, and maintain
quality for market and processing.

Post-harvest handling of
guava involves all steps after
harvest to maintain quality and
extend shelf life, which is crucial
due to the fruit's delicate nature, high respiration, and susceptibility to
damage. Key processes include careful harvesting, cleaning, sorting and
grading by size and quality, proper packaging in ventilated boxes, controlled
temperature storage (ideally 5-10°C), and careful transportation to reduce
mechanical injury and microbial spoilage. These steps aim to minimize the
significant post-harvest losses caused by factors like weight loss, disease,
and rapid ripening.
Postharvest refers to the stage immediately following harvest that
includes processes such as cleaning, cooling, packing, and sorting, which are
crucial for maintaining the quality of fruits and vegetables as they begin to
deteriorate after being separated from the mother plant.

Global guava production is substantial, with the combined mango &

guava production reaching about 61 million tonnes in 2023 per FAO-derived
data, guava making up a sizable portion. The leading producer is Indonesia,
which alone produces ~26.3 million tonnes annually. Other major producers
include India, China, Taiwan, and Palestine. The Asia-Pacific region
accounts for the majority of output. Demand for fresh fruit remains strong,
but processed guava products (juices, pulps, concentrates) are growing
quickly. Key challenges include high post-harvest losses (due to spoilage,
damage, lack of cold chain), pest and disease impacts, and problems in
grading, packaging, and storage, particularly for fruits intended for export
or longer shipping.

Guava is nutritionally rich: per 100 g raw guava, it typically provides

~37–68 calories, low fat, about 8 g carbohydrates (with ~2–3 g dietary fiber),
and small but meaningful protein content. It is especially high in vitamin C,
often exceeding the content in oranges; a single guava can supply more than
100% of daily vitamin C requirement. Mineral-wise, guava has good amounts
of potassium, magnesium, copper, and small amounts of iron, calcium, and
other trace elements. Guava also contains various bioactive compounds:

68
flavonoids, phenolic compounds, carotenoids (especially in pink/red guava),
lycopene, antioxidants, and compounds in its leaves that have
antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and possible antidiabetic effects. Health
benefits include boosting immunity (from high vitamin C), supporting heart
health (via fiber, potassium, reducing LDL, blood pressure), helping
digestion (fiber), possibly moderating blood sugar, supporting skin health,
and in some studies having anticancer properties.

There has been growing interest and deployment of machinery and

technological innovations to reduce labour, improve fruit quality, and
minimize losses in guava production and processing. One example is the
guava processing line from manufacturers like EasyReal, which covers the
entire chain from washing, crushing, pulping, refining, sterilization, to
filling/packaging, with capacities ranging (depending on setup) from small
to large scale (3-50 tons/hour) and modular designs. Another important tool
is sorting and grading machines, such as the Kerian Sizer, which sort guava
by size, helping standardize output, improve market price, and reduce
waste. Similarly, grading and sorting machines (e.g. machines for grading by
size via conveyor belts, etc.) are being used more in packing units. Peeling
machines adapted for guava (and similar fruits) are also available and used
especially in processing lines to remove or reduce skin for puree
preparation. On the production side, training systems like the espalier
system have been applied to guava orchards (e.g. in Brazil) to allow more
uniform tree height, which facilitates easier handling, spraying, pruning,
harvesting with machinery. Post-harvest innovations include better storage
practices: e.g. storing mature‐green or partially ripe guavas at 8-10 °C for
2-3 weeks, or ripe guavas at 5-8 °C for shorter durations; use of proper
humidity (90-95 %) to reduce softening. Additionally, there are R&D efforts
in sensor‐based sorting (ripeness / colour), e.g. a prototype ―Aisogu‖ sorting
tool using color sensors, IR sensors, conveyors to separate guavas by
maturity level, to reduce handling, standardize ripeness, and maintain
quality.

69
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Postharvest Handling – all practices applied to crops immediately after

harvest to maintain quality, prolong shelf life, and reduce losses.

Pre-cooling – the rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested produce
to slow down deterioration.

Respiration Rate – the rate at which harvested fruits consume oxygen and
release carbon dioxide; higher rates lead to faster ripening.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) – packaging technique that alters

the gas composition around the fruit to delay ripening.

Relative Humidity (RH) – the amount of water vapor in the air; important
for preventing shriveling and weight loss in fruits.

Edible Coatings – thin protective layers applied to fruits that act as barriers
against moisture loss and microbial infection.

Grading – sorting fruits according to size, shape, ripeness, or market

standards.

Shelf Life – the length of time a fruit remains fresh and acceptable for
consumption or sale.

70
POSTHARVEST HANDLING PRACTICES OF GUAVA

1. Harvesting

 Guava should be harvested at the mature-green or turning

stage depending on the market requirement.
 Manual harvesting with clippers or careful hand-picking is done
to avoid bruising.
2. Cleaning and Sorting

 Removal of dirt, latex, and damaged fruits.

 Sorting based on size, color, and ripeness for uniformity.
3. Pre-cooling

 Rapid removal of field heat (hydro-cooling or forced-air

cooling).
 Helps slow respiration and microbial growth.
4. Grading and Packaging

 Fruits are graded into export, domestic, or processing quality.

 Packaging in ventilated crates or cartons lined with soft
material minimizes damage.
5. Storage

 Optimum storage at 5–10 °C with 85–90% relative humidity can

extend shelf life to 2–3 weeks.
 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and controlled
atmosphere storage (CA) are sometimes used.
6. Transportation

 Use refrigerated vans or insulated containers to maintain cool

temperatures.
 Avoid over-stacking to reduce pressure damage.
7. Postharvest Treatments

 Hot water treatment (HWT) or fungicidal dips to reduce decay.

 Edible coatings (e.g., aloe vera gel, chitosan) to reduce
moisture loss.

71
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF LEMON
(Citrus limon)

72
INTRODUCTION

Lemon (Citrus limon) is a

widely cultivated citrus fruit known
for its bright yellow color, tangy
flavor, and high vitamin C content.
It offers numerous health benefits,
including boosting immunity, aiding
digestion, and promoting skin
health due to its antioxidant
properties In the Philippines,
lemons are grown primarily in
cooler highland areas, although
calamansi (Citrus × microcarpa), a
native citrus, is more commonly
[Link] fruits are valued in
Filipino households for culinary,
medicinal, and cleaning uses.
In Philippine agriculture, lemon plays a vital role in local economies,
especially in regions like Mindoro and Nueva Ecija. Its versatility allows it to
be sold fresh, processed into juice, concentrate, or dried peel, and
exported. However, despite its economic potential, postharvest losses
remain a major challenge in the supply chain.

According to the Philippine National Standard (PNS/BAFS 337:2022),

postharvest losses in lemon are significant. At the farm level, losses are
minimal (~0.6%), but at the retail level, up to 13% of fruits become
unmarketable. The primary causes include fungal infections (notably
Penicillium digitatum), plugging, yellowing, and browning. These losses
affect both profitability and food security.
To address these issues, the PNS recommends several postharvest
handling strategies. These include curing, sorting, grading, and the use of
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP). MAP combined with curing has been
shown to increase marketable fruit from 68% to 95% and reduce moisture
loss from 5% to 0%, significantly improving shelf life and quality.

The implementation of standardized postharvest practices is essential

for maintaining the integrity and marketability of lemon. By following the
guidelines set by the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS),
farmers and traders can reduce losses, ensure food safety, and enhance the
competitiveness of Philippine Lemon in both domestic and international
markets.

73
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Antioxidant – A substance that inhibits oxidation and helps protect cells

from damage caused by free radicals, contributing to improved health and
reduced inflammation.

Calamansi (Citrus × microcarpa) – A small, round citrus fruit native to the

Philippines, often referred to as "Philippine lemon," used in cooking,
beverages, and traditional remedies.

Curing – A postharvest process involving the drying or healing of minor

injuries on fruit surfaces to reduce decay and improve shelf life.

Fungal Infections – Diseases caused by fungi, such as Penicillium digitatum,

which lead to spoilage and deterioration of fruits during storage and
transport.

Grading – The classification of fruits based on size, color, ripeness, and

quality to ensure uniformity and market standards.

Lemon (Citrus limon) – A yellow citrus fruit known for its sour taste and
high vitamin C content, cultivated in various regions including the
Philippines.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) – A technology used to extend the

shelf life of fresh produce by altering the composition of gases inside the
packaging.

Plugging – A postharvest defect in citrus fruits where the stem end

deteriorates, often leading to microbial infection and spoilage.

Postharvest Losses – The reduction in quantity or quality of agricultural

produce after harvest due to factors like spoilage, handling damage, or poor
storage.

Sorting – The process of separating fruits based on physical characteristics

such as size, color, and defects to improve quality control and
marketability.

74
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF LEMON

1. Harvesting

 Stage of Harvest: Lemon should be harvested at full maturity—firm,

glossy green to yellow skin, and full size. Immature fruits are avoided
to ensure optimal juice content and flavor.
 Time of Harvest: Early morning or late afternoon is ideal to reduce
field heat and respiration rate.
 Method:
o Use sanitized scissors or clippers.
o Cut with a short stem (3–5 mm) to prevent sap loss and fungal
entry.
o Avoid pulling or shaking branches to prevent damage.
 Handling: Place fruits gently in padded containers lined with clean
paper. Avoid piling to reduce bruising.
2. Field Handling and Transport to Packing Area

 Transfer fruits immediately to a shaded, clean area to prevent

sunscald and overheating.
 Use sanitized plastic crates or bamboo baskets lined with paper—not
sacks—to avoid compression damage.
 Transport to packinghouse promptly after harvest.
3. Sorting and Grading

 Sorting: Remove fruits that are undersized, cracked, overripe,

diseased, or insect-damaged.
 Grading (based on PNS/BAFS 198:2017):
o Extra Class: Uniform, superior quality, free from defects.
o Class I: Good quality, minor blemishes allowed.
o Class II: Acceptable quality, more defects permitted but still
marketable.
4. Cleaning and Sanitation

 Washing: Use clean, potable water to remove dirt and latex.

 Sanitizing: Optional—use chlorinated water (100–200 ppm) or
approved organic sanitizers to reduce microbial load.
 Drying: Air-dry fruits on clean racks to prevent moisture buildup and
fungal growth.
5. Pre-cooling

 Purpose: To remove field heat and slow respiration.

 Methods:
o Room cooling for small-scale farms.
o Forced-air cooling for commercial operations.
 Conditions:
o Ideal temperature: 10–13 °C.
o Maintain 90–95% relative humidity to prevent shriveling.

75
6. Packaging

 Materials:
o Use clean, food-grade crates, baskets, or boxes lined with
paper or foam.
o Polyethylene bags with diffusion holes (e.g., 160 holes, 0.038
mm thick) are recommended for modified atmosphere
packaging (MAP).
 Labeling:
- Include product name (―Lemon‖), grade, net weight, source, and
handling instructions.

 Packaging must comply with PNS/BAFS 198:2017 for food safety.

7. Storage

 Temperature: Store at 10–13 °C for up to 2 weeks.

 Humidity: Maintain 90–95% RH.
 Risks: Avoid temperatures below 10 °C to prevent chilling injury (skin
browning, pitting).
 Controlled Atmosphere: Optional—low O₂ and moderate CO₂ can
extend shelf life.
8. Ripening

 Lemons are sorted and grated to separate mature green fruits

suitable for ripening.
 Ethylene gas may be applied in ripening chambers to accelerate color
change from green to yellow.
 After ripening, lemons are cooled, packed, and stored under optimal
conditions to maintain quality and reduce postharvest losses.
9. Transport and Distribution

 Use clean, sanitized, and ventilated vehicles.

 Precooled fruits should be transported in refrigerated trucks—not
cooled during transit.
 Stack packages to allow airflow and avoid crushing.
 Minimize shocks and vibrations during loading/unloading.

76
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF MANGO

77
INTRODUCTION

Mango, known as the "King

of Fruits," is one of the most
popular and economically
significant tropical fruits in the
world. With its rich flavor, vibrant
colors, and nutritional benefits,
mangoes are enjoyed in various
forms, from fresh consumption to
processed products like juices,
jams, and dried fruits. Mangoes
are one of the most popular fruits
worldwide, with a significant
industry surrounding their
production and consumption. As
one of the largest producers
globally, countries like India,
China, Thailand, and the Philippines play a crucial role in meeting the
demand for this nutritious fruit. The Philippines, in particular, has gained
recognition for producing some of the world's largest mangoes, including a
Guinness World Record holder weighing nearly 3.5kg. Rich in essential
nutrients and antioxidants, mangoes offer numerous health benefits, from
reducing cancer risk and boosting immunity to supporting heart health and
improving digestive health. With their nutrient-dense composition and
versatility in consumption, mangoes are a valuable addition to a balanced
diet.
The Philippine National Standard (PNS-BAFS 13-2024) for mangoes
provides comprehensive guidelines for grading and classification based on
quality and maturity, ensuring that mangoes meet the stringent standards of
both domestic and international markets. Mangoes, being one of the
Philippines' most valuable fruit exports, benefit significantly from these
standards. The PNS enhances the competitiveness of Philippine mangoes
globally by setting specific requirements for size, shape, color, and
maturity, which in turn boosts consumer satisfaction. By adhering to these
standards, mango producers and exporters can ensure their products meet
quality expectations and comply with importing countries' regulations,
ultimately supporting the growth and sustainability of the mango industry in
the Philippines. With the Philippines renowned for its high-quality mangoes,
particularly the prized Carabao mango, the implementation of the PNS plays
a crucial role in maintaining the country's reputation as a premier mango
producer and exporter.

78
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Cold Chain Management- The practice of maintaining a consistent

refrigerated temperature throughout the supply chain to preserve mango
quality.

Ethylene Management-The control of ethylene gas levels to regulate the

ripening process and extend shelf life.

Grading- The process of sorting mangoes based on size, shape, color, and
quality to meet market standards.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)- A packaging technique that modifies

the atmosphere around the mangoes to slow down the ripening process.

Maturity Index- A measure of the physiological maturity of mangoes, often

determined by factors such as skin color, firmness, and sugar content.

Packaging- The process of placing mangoes in containers or bags to protect

them during transportation and storage.

Postharvest Handling- The series of activities and practices applied to

agricultural produce after harvest to maintain quality and extend shelf life.
–

Ripening- The process of allowing mangoes to reach their optimal eating

quality, often achieved through controlled temperature and ethylene
management.

Storage- The practice of holding mangoes in a controlled environment to

slow down the ripening process and maintain quality.

Transportation- The movement of mangoes from the farm or packing house

to the market or consumer, requiring careful handling to maintain quality.

79
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES FOR MANGOES BASED ON PHILIPPINE
NATIONAL STANDARDS (PNS)

 Harvesting -Mangoes should be picked at the optimal stage of

maturity, typically during the early morning or late afternoon when
temperatures are lower. Use sharp, sterilized tools to minimize injury
to the fruit and tree.

 Sorting and Grading - Mangoes are sorted based on size, shape, color,
and quality to separate them into different grades. Grading ensures
uniformity in quality and helps remove damaged or diseased fruits.

 Cleaning and Sanitizing -Mangoes are cleaned to remove dirt, dust,

and other contaminants. Sanitizing helps prevent the growth of
microorganisms that can cause spoilage.

 Packing -Mangoes are packed in ventilated containers or bags to

protect them during transportation and storage. Proper packaging
materials, such as paper scraps or newspaper, can help prevent
bruising.

 Cooling and Storage - Mangoes are precooled to 10-12°C to slow down

the ripening process. They can be stored at room temperature for 4-
10 days or in cold storage at 12-13°C for up to 18 months

 Transportation -Mangoes should be transported in refrigerated vans or

containers to maintain optimal temperatures and prevent spoilage.

 Ripening -Mangoes can be ripened using ethylene gas or other

ripening agents. The recommended temperature for ripening is
between 20-23°C.

 Quality Control -Regular quality checks help ensure that mangoes

meet consumer expectations. This includes monitoring for signs of
spoilage, disease, or damage.

80
POST HARVEST HANDLING OF
MULBERRY (Morus nigra)

81
INTRODUCTION

Mulberry (Morus spp.) is an

important fruit crop in Asia and is
gaining attention in the
Philippines for both its nutritional
and economic potential.
Traditionally cultivated to support
sericulture, mulberry has recently
been recognized as a promising
fruit for fresh consumption,
processing, and export. In the
Philippines, production is still at a
developing stage and remains
limited compared to other fruit
crops, but institutional initiatives
are driving growth. For example,
Pampanga State Agricultural
University (PSAU), in collaboration with the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) and Kuwanosato, Inc., established the country‘s first mulberry
tea processing plant in 2023. This facility can process up to 500 kilograms of
raw mulberry leaves in just eight hours, producing around 100 kilograms of
tea. This advancement demonstrates the current direction of mulberry
production in the country—small but expanding, with a growing focus on
value-added processing.

In terms of health benefits and composition, mulberry fruits and

leaves contain high levels of anthocyanins, flavonoids, and phenolic
compounds, which provide strong antioxidant properties. They are also a
rich source of vitamin C, dietary fiber, protein, and essential minerals such
as calcium and potassium. Research in the Philippines confirms that
mulberry fruits vary in nutritional profile depending on the variety and
season, with significant amounts of carbohydrates, sugars, and bioactive
compounds that contribute to anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic potential.
These qualities make mulberry an emerging candidate for nutraceuticals,
functional foods, and health-promoting beverages.

As for recent machinery and technology, mulberry production and

processing in the Philippines has benefited from the introduction of
Japanese tea-production technology, which allows efficient large-scale
processing of mulberry leaves into tea while maintaining quality standards.
Other postharvest innovations include mechanized dryers, improved cold
storage, and food-grade packaging that reduce spoilage and extend shelf
life. These advances align with the Philippine National Standards (PNS/BAFS
49:2018 – Code of Practice for Postharvest Handling of Fresh Fruits and
Vegetables), which emphasize careful harvesting, sorting, cooling, and
handling to ensure that mulberries reach consumers in optimal condition.
Together, the expansion of production areas, the recognition of mulberry‘s
health-promoting composition, and the adoption of modern processing
machinery highlight its increasing relevance in Philippine agriculture.

82
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Anthocyanins – Natural pigments in mulberry fruit with antioxidant

properties.

Antioxidant – Compounds preventing oxidation and protecting cells from

damage .

Mulberry – A deciduous plant of the genus Morus, cultivated for fruits and
leaves, important in food and sericulture.

Nutritional Composition – Chemical constituents such as vitamins, minerals,

carbohydrates, and proteins in mulberries.

Philippine National Standard (PNS) – Standardized guidelines in the

Philippines ensuring quality and safety of agricultural products.

Postharvest Handling – Processes undertaken after harvest to maintain fruit

quality and prolong shelf life.

Processing Plant – Facility for transforming raw mulberry into

consumable/marketable products.

Sericulture – Silk farming, utilizing mulberry leaves as primary food for

silkworms.

Shelf Life – Duration the harvested fruit remains suitable for consumption or
processing.

Value-Added Products – Processed goods from mulberry (e.g., tea, jam,

wine).

83
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF MULBERRY

1. Harvesting
•Stage of harvest – Fully ripened, dark-colored mulberries are preferred
for fresh consumption and processing.
2. •Time of harvest – Early morning or late afternoon to reduce heat stress
and moisture loss.
3. •Method – Handpicking or gentle shaking onto clean nets to avoid
bruising.
4. •Handling – Use shallow, clean, food-grade containers to minimize
mechanical damage.
5. Field and Transport to Packing Area

•Collected mulberries should be transported immediately in shaded or

ventilated containers.

•Avoid stacking and compression to prevent crushing.

• Minimize transport time from field to packing area.

6. Sorting and Grading

•Sorting – Removal of diseased, damaged, or under/overripe fruits.

•Grading – Classification based on uniformity of size, color, and quality.
•Extra Class – Superior quality, uniform in shape and color, free of
defects.
•Class I – Good quality, minor defects allowed but not affecting overall
appearance.
•Class II – Acceptable quality, with more noticeable defects but still
edible.

7. Cleaning and Sanitation

•Washing – Use of potable water to remove dirt and residues.

•Sanitizing – Application of safe disinfectants (e.g., chlorine solution).
•Drying – Air-drying or using clean absorbent material to remove excess
moisture.

8. Pre-Cooling

•Purpose – Rapid removal of field heat to extend shelf life.

•Methods – Forced-air cooling, room cooling, or hydro-cooling.
•Conditions – Immediate cooling after harvest, ideally within 1–2 hours.

9. Packaging

•Primary packaging – Ventilated clamshells, punnets, or food-grade

trays.
•Labeling – Indication of product name, grade/class, net weight,
producer, and date of harvest.
84
10. Storage

•Temperature – Optimal range: 0–4 °C.

•Relative humidity – 90–95% to minimize moisture loss.

•Risks – Chilling injury, fungal growth, shriveling.

•Controlled atmosphere – Low oxygen and high carbon dioxide can slow
ripening and decay.

11. Ripening

• Mulberries ripen rapidly after harvest; consumption or processing

should be immediate to avoid spoilage.

12. Transport and Distribution

• Use of refrigerated vans or coolers to maintain quality.

• Avoid overstacking and mechanical vibration.
• Ensure proper ventilation during distribution.
• Timely delivery to markets or processing plants.

85
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF OKRA
(Abelmoschus esculentus)

86
INTRODUCTION

Okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus) is a widely cultivated
vegetable crop valued for its
tender green pods used in various
cuisines worldwide. Post-harvest
handling of okra is crucial to
maintain its quality, reduce
losses, and extend shelf life.

Okra is extensively grown in

tropical and subtropical regions.
India, Nigeria, and Sudan are
leading producers, contributing
significantly to local food security
and income. However, post-
harvest losses are still high due to
poor handling, inadequate storage, and transportation issues. In the
Philippines and other Asian countries, okra is grown for both local
consumption and export, particularly to Japan and the Middle East. Despite
its commercial importance, many smallholder farmers still face challenges
such as lack of access to cooling facilities, improper packaging, and long
transport distances, which accelerate deterioration of the pods.

Okra is rich in vitamins A, C, and K, calcium, potassium, and

magnesium. It also contains dietary fiber and antioxidants, promoting
digestion, heart health, and blood sugar regulation. The mucilage present in
okra pods is beneficial in reducing cholesterol absorption and is often
utilized in culinary preparations as a natural thickener. Additionally, regular
consumption of okra contributes to improved immune function, bone health,
and protection against oxidative stress.
Recent advancements include improved harvesting tools, packhouse
facilities, cold storage systems, and modified atmosphere packaging
technologies that help in reducing microbial contamination and preserving
freshness during marketing and distribution. In some modern farms,
mechanized grading and sorting machines are being adopted to ensure
uniform quality and reduce labor costs. Pre-cooling units and refrigerated
transport systems are also increasingly accessible to commercial growers,
extending the market reach of fresh okra to distant areas without
compromising quality.
Beyond technology, training programs and farmer cooperatives are being
introduced to strengthen post-harvest practices. These efforts focus on
minimizing field heat, preventing physical injuries to pods, and maintaining
optimal storage conditions. With the integration of improved techniques and
machinery, the post-harvest life of okra can be significantly prolonged,
helping farmers secure better prices and reducing overall food waste.

87
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Cooling: The process of lowering the temperature of harvested okra to slow

respiration and deterioration.

Grading: Classification of okra pods based on size, shape, color, and quality.

Harvesting – The act of collecting mature okra pods from the field, typically
when they are still young and tender.

Packaging – Placing sorted and graded okra into protective containers (such
as ventilated crates, trays, or cartons) to prevent mechanical damage and
moisture loss during handling, storage, and transport.

Physiological Weight Loss (PWL) – The reduction in the weight of okra pods
during storage due to transpiration and respiration.

Pre-cooling – The rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested okra
immediately after harvest to minimize metabolic activity and deterioration.

Respiration – The metabolic process in okra where stored sugars are broken
down in the presence of oxygen, releasing energy, carbon dioxide, and
water, which reduces shelf life.

Sanitation – Cleaning and disinfecting all tools, containers, and facilities

used in handling okra to minimize contamination and decay.

Sorting – The separation of okra pods based on size, defects, and quality
standards before grading and packaging.

Storage – The practice of keeping harvested okra under controlled

conditions (temperature and humidity) to maintain freshness and extend
shelf life.

88
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES FOR OKRA

Harvesting
•Okra pods are harvested while still young and tender, usually 3–7 days after
flowering.

•Manual harvesting with gloves or knives is preferred to avoid bruising and

protect workers from irritant plant hairs.

Field Handling

•Pods are carefully placed in shallow, smooth containers to prevent

compression damage.

•Harvested pods should not be left under direct sunlight for long periods, as
this accelerates wilting.
Cleaning/Washing

•Light washing with clean, chlorinated water (50–100 ppm) removes dirt,
field debris, and microorganisms.
•Pods are dried with fans or clean cloth to prevent surface moisture that
promotes fungal growth.

Sorting
•Defective, diseased, or over-mature pods are removed.

•Only pods of good quality proceed to grading.

Grading
•Okra pods are classified according to size, color, shape, and freedom from
defects.

•Market standards often group them as small, medium, or large pods.

Pre-cooling

•Field heat is removed immediately after harvest using hydro-cooling or

forced-air cooling.
•Reduces respiration and extends storage life.

Packaging

•Graded okra is packed in ventilated plastic crates, corrugated fiberboard

boxes, or perforated plastic bags.

•Packaging should allow airflow while protecting pods from damage.

89
Storage

•Stored at 7–10 °C with 90–95% relative humidity to minimize weight loss

and wilting.

•Storage life: typically 7–10 days under optimal conditions.

Transportation
•Transport vehicles should be shaded, clean, and well-ventilated.

•For long distances, refrigerated transport helps maintain freshness.

Marketing/Distribution
•Fresh okra is distributed to local markets or exported, often requiring
strict quality control and cold chain maintenance.

90
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF ORGANIC
RICE

91
INTRODUCTION

The Philippine National

Standard (PNS) 42:2019 for Organic
Milled Rice was created by the
Department of Agriculture – Bureau
of Agriculture and Fisheries
Standards (BAFS), along with a group
of experts from different
government agencies and private
sectors. This standard focuses on
how to properly handle organic
milled rice (Oryza sativa L.) after
harvest.

This year, BAFS also

developed a supporting document
called the Explanatory Manual (EM),
with help from a new group of experts. The EM helps readers better
understand the standard by using pictures and explanations. It explains the
reasons behind the requirements but does not include any rules or
regulations.

New technologies help the Philippines by increasing crop production,

improving product quality, and reducing post-harvest losses. They lower
farming costs, support sustainable practices, and protect the environment.
These innovations also boost farmers‘ income, create jobs, and provide
accurate data for better decision-making in agriculture.

92
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Brown rice / Pinawa - rice grain with its hulls removed but not polished,
regardless if pigmented or not.

Dehulling - removing the hull from paddy rice, in order to get brown rice.

Drying - process of removing excess available water from the grain through
evaporation by the application of heat.

Milled rice - kernels obtained after removal of the hull, aleurone layers
(bran, pericarp, testa), and germ.

Organic milled rice - milled rice obtained from organically grown and
processed. rice.

Paddy rice/rough rice - unhulled rice grain with the glumes enclosing the
kernel.

Polishing - removing the aleurone layers (bran, pericarp, testa) and germ
from the brown rice to obtain milled rice

Postharvest - series of activities starting from grain drying, milling,

storage.

Rice Milling - process of removing of hull only, or of hull aleurone layers

(bran, pericarp, and testa), and germ to obtain kernels.

Storage - keeping organic milled rice in a designated area to preserve its

quality until the time of disposition.

Hauling (farm to dryer) - Organic and conventionally grown paddy rice shall
be hauled separately. The farmer shall haul newly harvested organic paddy
rice immediately after harvest. Hauling facilities to be used for collecting
and transporting the harvested organic paddy rice from the farm shall be
clean and dry.

93
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF AVOCADO

1. Drying
 Organic and conventionally grown paddy rice shall be dried
separately. Mechanical drying is recommended in drying organic
paddy rice. Clean mechanical dryers shall be used. If possible, a
mechanical dryer should be dedicated solely for drying organic paddy
rice. If not possible, organic paddy rice
shall be dried first before conventionally grown paddy rice.
o Sun drying is allowed; however, drying in highways and roads is
strictly prohibited. Drying facilities like concrete pavement
(preferably with underlay) shall be properly clean and free from oil
spill, manure, residues, and other contaminants before drying.
o During drying birds and other stray animals shall be kept away from
the drying area to avoid contamination of organic paddy rice.
Personnel in charge of drying paddy rice shall observe proper hygiene
within the premises. Brand new sacks or recycled clean sacks
previously used for organic paddy rice shall be used. Proper tagging of
sacks should be observed to avoid mixing of organic from
conventionally grown paddy rice.
o Dried organic paddy rice should have a maximum moisture content of
14% when tested by properly verified and adjusted moisture meters.
2. Hauling (dryer to storage)
 Organic and conventionally grown paddy rice shall be hauled
separately. Transport facilities shall be properly cleaned every time
organic paddy rice are to be hauled.
3. Milling
 As much as possible, a rice mill should be dedicated solely for
milling organic paddy rice. To avoid contamination, all milling
equipment shall be properly cleaned before usage.
Organic and conventional paddy rice shall be milled separately.
If the rice mill is not exclusively used for organic paddy rice,
organic paddy rice shall be milled first than conventionally
grown paddy rice. However, if the mill was previously used for
conventional rice, purging or flushing should be practiced. The
amount of the purged or flushed milled rice to be segregated
depends on the capacity of the mill. Segregated rice from
purging or flushing is considered as conventional.
 Brand new sacks shall be used. Labeling of sacks for organic
milled rice shall be in accordance with the requirements of
PNS/BAFS XXX:201X Grains - Grading and classification - Paddy
and milled rice.
4. Hauling and storage
 The storage areas and hauling facilities shall be thoroughly
cleaned and free from pests. Cleaning materials should be in
accordance with the PNS/BAFS 07 Organic Agriculture and its
latest issuance.
 Use of botanical sprays is allowed but should not be sprayed
directly

94
 to the organic milled rice. Operators should always make a
record on the amount and kind of botanical sprays used.
 Hauling of organic milled rice (from mill to storage)
Vehicles and other equipment used during hauling shall be
properly cleaned prior to loading of organic milled rice. Use of
clean pallets during transport shall be observed. However,
chemically treated pallets shall not be used.
 Organic milled rice shall not be hauled together with potential
sources of contaminants such as oil and chemicals. During
hauling, clean tarpaulins and other uncontaminated covering
materials shall be used.
5. Storage
 The use of "hooks" is prohibited. Organic milled rice shall be
stored at a maximum of 14% moisture content (MC). Organic
milled rice shall be piled separately from conventional milled
rice
 Proper piling of labeled organic milled rice shall be observed.
In case there is suspicion of traces of pesticides in the storage
facilities, these should be removed by using the appropriate
cleaning agent and water prior to storage.
 Proper waste disposal of biodegradable and non-biodegradable
materials shall be observed.
 First-in, first-out principle shall be observed.
Chemically treated pallets shall not be used in the warehouse.
Pest management in storage Physical control or preventive
measures are encouraged for pest management.
 Pest control measures using chemical pesticides of stored
organic rice shall not be allowed. There shall never be direct
or indirect contact between organic rice and prohibited
substances (e.g. pesticides). When any doubt arises, it shall be
ensured that no residue in the organic rice is detected.
Irradiation of the organic rice for pest control is prohibited.

95
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
PAPAYA

96
INTRODUCTION

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is

a tropical fruit widely cultivated
for its sweet flavor, attractive
color, and high nutritional value.
It is an excellent source of
vitamins A, C, and E, minerals,
and dietary fiber, making it an
important component of a healthy
diet. In addition, papaya contains
the enzyme papain, which has
applications in food processing,
pharmaceuticals, and meat
tenderizing. The fruit is consumed
fresh, canned, or processed into
juices, jams, and other products,
contributing significantly to local and international markets.

The papaya plant is fast-growing, perennial, and adaptable to

tropical and subtropical climates, which allows cultivation in countries such
as the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Brazil, and Mexico. In the Philippines,
varieties such as Red Lady are popular due to their high quality and
suitability for both local consumption and export. Papaya production is
economically significant, providing income for smallholder farmers and
contributing to the agricultural sector. Its cultivation also supports rural
livelihoods, employment, and trade opportunities, especially for export-
oriented production.

Despite its economic importance, papaya is highly perishable. After

harvest, the fruit is susceptible to mechanical damage, microbial decay,
over-ripening, and physiological disorders such as chilling injury. These
factors can cause significant postharvest losses, sometimes reaching 30–40%
of the harvested yield. Improper handling not only reduces fruit quality but
also impacts farmers‘ income and limits the availability of fresh, high-
quality fruits for consumers. Therefore, proper postharvest handling is
essential to minimize losses, maintain quality, and ensure marketability.

Postharvest handling includes all practices applied from harvest to

consumption, such as harvesting at the correct maturity stage, cleaning, de-
latexing, grading, packaging, storage, transportation, ripening, and
marketing. Advances in postharvest technologies, including hot water
treatment, waxing, controlled atmosphere storage, and modified
atmosphere packaging, have greatly improved fruit preservation and shelf
life. Understanding and implementing these practices is vital for reducing
losses, improving profitability, meeting market standards, and ensuring that
papaya reaches consumers in optimal condition.

97
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Chilling Injury – physiological damage that occurs when papaya is stored

below the safe temperature (10 °C).

De-latexing – the process of removing latex (milky sap) exuded from papaya
fruits after harvest to prevent stains and reduce postharvest disorders.

Grading – classification of fruits according to quality factors such as size,

weight, shape, and maturity.

Hot Water Treatment (HWT) – immersion of fruits in hot water to control

fruit flies and fungal pathogens.

Postharvest Handling – the set of practices applied to crops immediately

after harvest to maintain quality, reduce losses, and extend shelf life.

Shelf Life – the length of time a fruit maintains acceptable quality for
consumption.

98
POSTHARVEST ACTIVITIES OF PAPAYA

1. Harvesting
- Fruits are harvested at the mature-green to half-ripe stage when skin
color changes from green to yellow.
- Harvest carefully with clippers or knives to avoid bruising.
2. Field Sorting

- Remove damaged, diseased, or overripe fruits.

3. Cleaning / Washing
- Wash fruits with clean water to remove dirt and latex.
- Use mild disinfectants (e.g., chlorine solution) to minimize microbial
contamination.
4. De-latexing

- Hold fruits upside down or immerse the stem end in water for a few
minutes to drain latex.
5. Grading and Sizing

- Categorize fruits based on uniformity, weight, shape, and appearance to

meet market or export standards.
6. Drying / Curing

- Air-dry fruits after washing to reduce excess moisture and fungal growth.

7. Packaging
- Pack in ventilated cartons, crates, or baskets lined with soft materials
(paper or foam) to minimize damage.

8. Postharvest Treatments
- Hot water treatment (48–49 °C for 20 min) to kill fruit fly eggs and fungi.
- Waxing or coating to reduce water loss and improve shine.

9. Storage
- Store at 10–13 °C and 90–95% RH.

- Avoid temperatures below 10 °C to prevent chilling injury.

10. Transportation
-Use refrigerated or ventilated vans.

- Handle carefully to prevent bruises and cuts.

99
11. Ripening

- Expose fruits to ethylene gas (100 ppm for 24 hrs) or natural ripening
agents for uniform ripening.

12. Marketing / Distribution

- Deliver to local markets or export destinations with proper packaging and

labeling.

100
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
PINEAPPLE

101
INTRODUCTION

Pineapple (Ananas comosus)

is one of the most important
tropical fruits cultivated in the
Philippines, serving as a key
export commodity and a vital
source of livelihood for farmers.
Known for its sweetness,
nutritional value, and versatility,
pineapple is consumed fresh,
processed, or as an ingredient in
various food products. With the
country ranking among the world‘s
top producers, ensuring fruit
quality after harvest is crucial to
sustaining competitiveness in both
domestic and international
markets (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2020).

Despite its economic potential, pineapple is highly perishable and

prone to rapid deterioration when mishandled. Postharvest losses often
occur due to mechanical injuries, improper harvesting, microbial
contamination, and poor transport and storage practices (Darmawan et al.,
2021). These challenges not only reduce farmers‘ income but also lead to
significant waste along the value chain. To address this, proper postharvest
handling practices have been developed to maintain freshness, extend shelf
life, and ensure food safety.

Key operations in pineapple postharvest handling include harvesting

at the proper maturity stage, careful cutting to minimize stem damage, and
immediate removal of field heat. Fruits undergo cleaning, sorting, and
grading to separate damaged or diseased produce while ensuring uniformity
in size and quality. Packaging plays an important role in protecting the fruit
against physical damage and contamination while allowing adequate
ventilation. Furthermore, transport systems must maintain favorable
conditions—such as shading, cooling, and gentle handling—to minimize
spoilage and preserve market quality (Hernandez-Hernandez et al., 2019).

In the Philippines, these practices are supported by guidelines set by

the Philippine National Standard (PNS/BAFPS 38:2005), which outlines
recommended measures for harvesting, handling, packaging, storage, and
transportation. Although established in 2005, the PNS remains a relevant
reference to ensure that pineapples maintain their desirable taste, texture,
and nutritional value while meeting food safety and quality standards. By
adhering to science-based postharvest handling practices, stakeholders in
the pineapple industry can reduce losses, improve profitability, and deliver
high-quality fruits to consumers worldwide.

102
Current Status of Production

 In 2024, pineapple production in the Philippines was 2,919,939.73

metric tons.
 For 2025, projected production is 3,124,881.27 metric tons.
 The projected yield is 44 metric tons per hectare.
 Export earnings in 2024 from pineapples and pineapple products
reached USD 787.12 million, a 7.5% increase from 2023.
 Volume of fresh or dried pineapple exports in 2024 was 675,540
metric tons, with 282,460 metric tons (42%) shipped to China.

Health Benefits and Composition of Pineapple

 Rich in Vitamin C, which strengthens the immune system and

promotes wound healing.
 Contains manganese, important for bone formation, metabolism, and
antioxidant defense.
 Provides dietary fiber, supporting healthy digestion and preventing
constipation.
 Contains the enzyme bromelain, known for aiding protein digestion
and reducing inflammation.
 Low in calories and high in water content, making it beneficial for
hydration and weight management.
 Provides antioxidants such as flavonoids and phenolic compounds,
which help reduce oxidative stress and lower risk of chronic diseases.
 Contains trace minerals such as potassium and magnesium, which
contribute to cardiovascular health and electrolyte balance.

Recent Machineries and Technologies in Pineapple Production

 Pineapple Multi-Processing Machine (Capiz State University)

Developed to automate peeling, coring, and slicing. Performance
evaluation shows: 66 pieces per hour capacity; machine efficiency -
76.33%; relative efficiency - 104.09%; operating time per fruit - 0.92
minute.
 Agritech Pineapple Decorticating / Fiber Extraction Machines
Local maker (Agritech Devices) provides decorticating machines for
pineapple leaves, among other fibers, supporting fiber production
from farm residues.
 Solar-powered Decorticating Machine for Pineapple Leaves
Used in remote agricultural areas (e.g. Negros Island) to process
pineapple leaves into fiber; system uses solar modules, battery, and
variable speed drive to run decorticating machinery

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Class I - Good-quality pineapples allowing slight defects (≤ 4% of surface

area) that don‘t affect flesh quality.

Class II - Pineapples with moderate defects (≤ 8% of surface area) but still

meeting minimum requirements.

Extra Class - Superior-quality pineapples with only very slight superficial

defects, not affecting appearance, quality, or shelf life.

Labeling (Consumer Packages) - Must include produce name, possibly

variety, date marking (harvest/packaging), origin, and, optionally, lot
number.

Maturity Index - A set of criteria such as peel color and total soluble solids,
used to determine ripeness; minimum of 12 °Brix is required, with sampling
representing at least 1% of the harvest.

Minimum Requirements - Fundamental attributes that all classes must

satisfy: whole, firm, fresh, clean, free from pests, foreign matter, odors,
mechanical or chilling injury, and rot.

Packaging - Use of food-grade, clean materials that protect produce from

damage and comply with PNS/BAFS 198:2017 (COP for packaging and
transport).

Peduncle - The primary stalk supporting a pineapple; when present, it must

be cut straight and clean, typically about 2 cm in length.

Sound - Produce free from physical injury, decay, live or dead insects
(including eggs and larvae), ensuring appearance, edibility, shelf life, and
market value.

Uniformity - Packaging requirement whereby all fruits in a package must be

uniform in origin, variety, quality, and size; visible contents should reflect
the whole lot.

104
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF PINEAPPLE

1. Field Handling

 Place harvested fruits in shaded, well-ventilated containers or

perforated field bins.
 Protect fruits from direct sunlight and excessive heat to minimize
deterioration.
 Transport promptly to the packing facility to prevent heat buildup
and reduce spoilage.
2. Pre-cooling

 Remove field heat immediately after harvest to slow respiration,

reduce moisture loss, and delay ripening.
 As per PNS/BAFS 198:2017, cooling can be achieved through forced
air or hydro cooling methods depending on facility availability.

3. Grading & Sorting

 Sort to remove damaged, diseased, or undersized fruits and Maintain

uniformity to meet both local and export market requirements.
 Grade according to PNS/BAFS 09:2023, which classifies fruits by size,
weight, color, and external appearance (e.g., Extra Class, Class I,
Class II).

4. Packaging

 Use clean, sturdy, and food-grade packaging materials such as

corrugated fiberboard boxes or plastic crates.
 Packaging must provide protection from physical injury and allow
ventilation during storage and transport.
 Apply proper labeling, including product name, grade, net weight,
source, and harvest date.
5. Storage

 Store pineapples in a cool, well-ventilated area to reduce respiration

and extend shelf life.
 Ideal storage temperature: 10–13 °C with 85–90% relative humidity
(short-term storage).
 Avoid chilling injury by not storing below recommended temperature
levels.

6. Transportation & Distribution

 Use clean and well-ventilated vehicles; for long distances,

refrigerated trucks are preferred.
 Stack fruits properly to minimize compression damage and movement
during transit.
 Deliver promptly to markets or processing facilities to ensure
freshness and maintain quality.

105
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF POTATO

106
INTRODUCTION

Post-harvest handling of
potatoes is critical stage that
determines their marketability,
nutritional value, and overall shelf
life. It encompasses a series of
operations and practices applied
after harvest to maintain quality
and minimize losses. These
processes include careful
harvesting, curing, grading, sorting,
storage, and transportation. Proper
post-harvest handling is essential to
prevent spoilage, reduce physical
damage, and control physiological
changes that can impact the quality
of potatoes. Effective management
during this phase ensures that potatoes remain in optimal condition for
consumption or processing, thereby maximizing economic returns for
producers and ensuring food security.

It encompasses all activities from the moment potatoes are harvested

until they reach the consumer or are processed. These activities include
harvesting techniques, curing, sorting, grading, storage, transportation, and
marketing. Effective post-harvest handling is crucial for minimizing losses
due to spoilage, physical damage, and physiological deterioration, ensuring
that potatoes retain their nutritional content and market appeal.
Implementing best practices in post-harvest management not only enhances
food security but also improves the livelihoods of potato farmers by
increasing their income and reducing waste.

This includes careful harvesting, curing, sorting, grading, storage, and

transportation. The primary goal of effective post-harvest handling is to
minimize losses due to physical damage, spoilage, and physiological
deterioration, ensuring that potatoes retain their nutritional value and
market appeal throughout their journey from the field to the consumer.
Proper post-harvest management not only enhances food security by
reducing waste but also significantly contributes to the economic
sustainability of potato farming by increasing farmers‘ income and
improving market access. Implementing best practices in post-harvest
handling is essential for maximizing the benefits of potato production and
ensuring a stable supply of high-quality potatoes for both domestic and
international markets.

This phase includes a series of operations such as careful harvesting,

curing, sorting, grading, storage, and transportation, all aimed at preserving
the quality, nutritional value, and marketability of the crop. Effective post-
harvest management is essential to minimize losses caused by physical

107
damage, spoilage, and physiological deterioration, ensuring that the
potatoes remain in optimal condition for consumers.

108
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Air Circulation is the movement of air within the storage area to maintain
even temperature, remove excess heat and CO₂, and prevent spoilage
during potato storage.

CIPC (Chlorpropham) Application is a chemical treatment applied to

potatoes in storage to inhibit sprouting, helping maintain their quality and
prolong shelf life under controlled temperature and humidity.

Cleaning is the process of removing dirt, debris, and potential pathogens

from potatoes before storage, typically done by gently brushing or lightly
washing.

Curing is a post-harvest process where freshly harvested potatoes are held

in controlled conditions (cool, dry, ventilated) to allow minor wounds to
heal and reduce rot during storage.

Grading is the classification of potatoes based on size, quality, and

appearance. Grading ensures uniformity and helps in separating marketable
produce from substandard ones.

Harvesting Practices is techniques and timing used to dig up mature

potatoes, usually 80–90 days after planting. These include harvesting in dry
weather and handling tubers carefully to avoid damage.

Monitoring and Maintenance is ongoing inspections of stored potatoes to

detect and remove decaying, sprouting, or pest-infested ones, ensuring
product quality and reducing losses over time.

Post-Harvest Handling is all activities conducted after harvesting potatoes

to maintain quality, including curing, cleaning, grading, storage, and
transportation, with the goal of minimizing losses.

109
Sorting is the process of separating potatoes by condition, removing
damaged or diseased ones, and categorizing by size to improve storage and
marketing efficiency.

Storage Conditions is the environmental factors—such as temperature,

humidity, darkness, and ventilation—that must be controlled to preserve
potato quality and prevent spoilage during storage.

110
POST- HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF POTATO

This is the post-harvest activities for potatoes are essential to maintain

their quality and extend shelf life. These activities include harvesting
practices, curing, sorting, grading, proper storage conditions, and
monitoring.

1. Harvesting Practices
- Harvest potatoes approximately 80-90 days after planting, when the
aerial parts of the plant turn yellow.
- Harvest in dry weather, ceasing irrigation about two weeks before
harvesting
- Carefully dig up the potatoes using a tractor-drawn potato digger or
manual tools, avoiding bruising or skinning.
2. Curing
- Curing is vital for healing wounds and preventing rot.
- Dry the harvested potatoes in a cool, dry place with good ventilation,
avoiding direct sun exposure to prevent greening.
- Maintain a temperature of around 50-60°F (10-15°C) during the
curing process for about two weeks.
3. Sorting and Grading
- Sort and grade potatoes to remove any damaged, diseased, or
sprouted ones, as they can spoil the entire batch.
- Separate potatoes into different groups based on size to ensure even
airflow during storage.
- Use a grading scale to categorize potatoes based on quality and
appearance, setting aside the best ones for immediate consumption
and storing the others.
4. Cleaning
- Clean potatoes before storing dirt, debris, and pathogens.
- Gently brush off excess soil using a soft brush or sponge, avoiding
water if possible
- If washing is necessary, use cool water and a small amount of mild
detergent, rinsing thoroughly and patting them dry.
5. Storage Conditions
- Store potatoes in a dark environment to prevent greening or
chlorophyll growth
- Ensure proper ventilation to prevent the build-up of ethylene gas and
control moisture.
- Use breathable containers like burlap or paper bags rather than
airtight ones.
6. Monitoring and Maintenance
- Regularly check stored potatoes for signs of decay, sprouting, or
pest infestation
- Remove any spoiled or damaged potatoes immediately to prevent
the spread of deterioration
- Implement a ―first in, first out‖ system to use older potatoes
before fresher ones, preventing wastage and ensuring a constant
supply
-

111
7. Additional Considerations
- Charcoal Storage: Using a charcoal cooler store can help maintain a
cold and dark environment, perfect for potato storage, and can last
for 3-4 months.
- CIPC Application: Chlorpropham (CIPC) can be applied to inhibit
sprouting during storage, maintaining the storage temperature at 10 ±
1°C with 90-95% relative humidity.
- Air Circulation: Ensure air circulation in the storage room to remove
excessive temperature and CO2, retaining optimal storage conditions
and prolonging the storage period

112
POST – HARVEST HANDLING OF PURPLE
YAM

113
INTRODUCTION

Yam (Dioscorea alata L.),

locally known as ubi, is one of the
most important species under the
Dioscorea with about 600 species,
150 of which are cultivated for
food. Ubi is also called water yam,
guyanan arrowroot, greater yam,
name-de-agua, ten months yam,
white yam, or winged yam. It is
‗da shu‘ or ‗shuyu‘ in China,
―gname de chine‖ in France,
―khamatu‖ in India, ―daisho‖ in
Japan, ―ube kimali‖ in Malaysia,
―huabon‖ in Thailand, and
―khoaimo‖ in Vietnam. In the Source:
Pacific Island of Ponape, yams are [Link]
referred to as 2-4 or 6-man yams, content/uploads/2018/02/ube_production
depending on how many men it takes_guide.pdfto lift the tuber. Some have been
accurately recorded up to 250 kilograms (kg) and 2 meters (m) in length.
Ubi may have been cultivated as early as 8,000 B.C. in Asia. It is probably
native to China. But it is now known crop throughout the world. The other
cultivated species under the genus are ―tugui‖ or lesser yam (Dioscorea
esculenta), potato yam (D. Cayenensis), bitter yam (D. Dumentorum),
Chinese yam (D. Opposita), and white yam (D. Rotundata). Ubi is perennial
climbing herb with flesh color ranging from white to red deep purple. Tube
shape ranges from round to cylindrical and tuber flesh is watery in texture.
In the Philippines, it is usually grown in the country in small patches of land,
particularly in Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Bicol, Central Visayas, and Northern
Mindanao. Ubi is being introduced in Region 02 because of its potential for
food and commercial uses.

The tuber is a main ingredient in ―halayang ubi‖ (ubi jam), a favorite

dessert during fiestas and holidays. It is also cooked as combination in
―sinigang‖ or ―nilaga‖. It gives special taste, aroma, and color to
―guinataan‖, can be processed into powder, chips, and puree. Ubi is used as
an ingredient in sweets and confectioneries. Likewise, ubi powder is a basic
ingredient in ―puto‖, ―bibingka‖, ice candy, ―maruya‖ tart, jam,
macaroons, cake, flan, ―bitso‖, ―suman‖, ―pastillas‖, ―polvoron‖, ice
cream, doughnut, and ―empanada‖. Other ubi products include chips and
fries as potato substitute, dehydrated yam flakes, and instant yam mixtures.
Ubi peelings or wastes are fed to poultry and livestock. The peel is a good
source of purple dye for food, textile, and cosmetics. The average crude
protein content of ubi tubers is 7.4%. About 75% of the tuber dry matter is
starch. Crude protein and starch contents vary significantly among cultivars.
It is also a good source of Vitamin C and minerals. Total oxalate levels in
yam tuber range from 486 to 781 mg/100 grams (g) dry matter, 50-75%
which are in watersoluble form.

114
 Ubi has been used as medicine for thousands of years. Diosgenin is an
steroidal saponin, which is extracted from the root of wild yam. Dioscorin is
the tuber storage protein of acid ubi. It is commonly used in traditional
Chinese medicine to treat kidney and liver problems. Ubi was used
commercially to produce hormones for contraceptive pills and steroids. In
addition to their medicinal properties, peels also contain antifungal
compounds such as beta-sitosterol which can be used to control ubi
diseases.
Ubi can be grown in medium and low elevation areas, under open
and partially shaded conditions. In high elevation areas, yields can be
drastically reduced. Optimum temperatures range from 250o C to 300o C. It
requires a well-drained area for planting but grows well in all kinds of soil.
However, clay loam soils with high in organic matter are preferred. Ubi is
relatively drought-resistant, but at least 130 cm annual rainfall is needed. It
requires ample moisture throughout its growing period, particularly during
tuber bulking at 3-5 months after planting. Irrigation can be provided in
areas where the dry season is longer than 3 or 4 months and falls within the
bulking period of the plants.

USES AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE

The tuber is a main ingredient in ―halayang ubi‖ (ubi jam), a favorite
dessert during fiestas and holidays. It is also cooked as combination in
―sinigang‖ or ―nilaga‖. It gives special taste, aroma, and color to
―guinataan‖, can be processed into powder, chips, and puree. Ubi is used as
an ingredient in sweets and confectioneries. Likewise, ubi powder is a basic
ingredient in ―puto‖, ―bibingka‖, ice candy, ―maruya‖ tart, jam,
macaroons, cake, flan, ―bitso‖, ―suman‖, ―pastillas‖, ―polvoron‖, ice
cream, doughnut, and ―empanada‖. Other ubi products include chips and
fries as potato substitute, dehydrated yam flakes, and instant yam mixtures.
Ubi peelings or wastes are fed to poultry and livestock. The peel is a good
source of purple dye for food, textile, and cosmetics. The average crude
protein content of ubi tubers is 7.4%. About 75% of the tuber dry matter is
starch. Crude protein and starch contents vary significantly among cultivars.
It is also a good source of Vitamin C and minerals. Total oxalate levels in
yam tuber range from 486 to 781 mg/100 grams (g) dry matter, 50-75%
which are in watersoluble form.

Ubi has been used as

medicine for thousands of years.
Diosgenin is an steroidal saponin,
which is extracted from the root
of wild yam. Dioscorin is the
tuber storage protein of acid ubi.
It is commonly used in traditional
Chinese medicine to treat kidney
and liver problems. Ubi was used
commercially to produce

115
hormones for contraceptive pills and steroids. In addition to their medicinal
properties, peels also contain antifungal compounds such as beta-sitosterol
which can be used to control ubi diseases.

Properties Amount

Water (g) 74.9

Energy (kcal) 65.0

Protein (g) 1.7

Fat (g) 0.2

Carbohydrates (g) 21.5

Fiber (g) 0.7

Ash (g) 1.0

Calcium (mg) 19.0

Phosphorus (mg) 44.0

Iron (mg) 0.7

Thiamine (mg) 0.09

Riboflavin (mg) 0.02

Niacin (mg) 0.5

Ascorbic Acid (mg) 6.0

Source: The Philippine Food Composition Tables, l997. Food and Nutrition
Research Institute-Department of Science and Technology (FNRI-DOST).

116
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bulking Period – The stage of yam growth, usually 3–5 months after
planting, when tubers enlarge and accumulate starch.

Clay Loam Soil – A type of soil with good water-holding capacity and high
organic matter, preferred for yam cultivation.

Dioscorea alata L. (Ubi) – A perennial climbing herb also known as water

yam or purple yam, cultivated for its edible tubers.

Dioscorin – The tuber storage protein of yam, known for its medicinal and
nutritional properties.

Diosgenin – A steroidal saponin extracted from wild yam roots, used in the
commercial production of hormones, contraceptive pills, and steroids.

Fiestas – Local community celebrations in the Philippines where traditional

dishes like ―halayang ubi‖ are commonly served.

Guinataan – A Filipino delicacy made with coconut milk, often enhanced

with yam for added color, taste, and aroma.

Halayang Ubi – A popular Filipino dessert made from boiled and mashed
yam, mixed with sugar and milk to form a sweet jam.

Irrigation – The artificial application of water to crops, important for yam

production in areas with prolonged dry seasons.

Oxalate – A natural compound found in yam tubers; high levels may affect
edibility, though cooking reduces its impact.

Peelings – The outer covering of yam tubers; used as animal feed and as a
source of purple dye for food, textiles, and cosmetics.

Protein Content – The amount of crude protein in yam tubers, averaging

7.4% but varying among cultivars.

Saponin – A group of naturally occurring compounds found in yam roots,

including diosgenin, with medicinal and industrial uses.

117
Starch – The main carbohydrate in yam tubers, comprising about 75% of
their dry matter, used for food and industrial processing.

Tuber – The underground storage organ of yam plants, which serves as food
for humans and feed for animals.

Ubi Products – Food and non-food items made from yam, such as jam,
powder, cakes, ice cream, chips, and dyes.

118
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF PURPLE YAM

 Sort, clean, and arrange tubers in a single layer with rice straw or
banana leaf partition between rows to prevent injury. Cover with
appropriate materials such as banana leaves, coconut fronds, or rice
straw to minimize weight loss.
 Select planting materials for the next planting season. Store tubers in
a well-ventilated area and keep dry. Separate blemished or damaged
tubers and treat with wood ash to prevent fungal infection.
 Ubi can be stored for three months in a raised platfom three feet
from the ground. Place the tubers in a single layer horizontally on the
platform. Another method of storing tubers is to bury them in a ditch
covered with soil followed by coconut leaves on top. To prevent
rodents and other pests from attacking the stored tubers, securely
fence the barns or storage areas or use traps and baits.
 Ubi can also be kept in cold storage. Keep them on shelves in rows at
12o C-16o C and 70-80% relative humidity. Tubers can be stored 6-7
months under this condition.

119
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF SITAW

120
INTRODUCTION
Sitaw (Vigna unguiculata
subsp. Sesquipedalis), commonly
known as string bean, yardlong
bean, or snake bean, is a widely
grown legume vegetable crop in
tropical and subtropical regions,
including the Philippines. It is
valued for its long, slender pods
that are excellent sources of
vitamins A, B, and C, minerals such
as calcium, iron, and phosphorus, as
well as protein and dietary fiber.
Sitaw is a versatile vegetable
commonly cooked in stir-fried
dishes, soups, and traditional
Filipino recipes such as adobong
sitaw and pinakbet, making it an important component of household diets
and local cuisines.

As a perishable vegetable, sitaw has a relatively short shelf life due

to its high moisture content, rapid respiration, and susceptibility to
mechanical injury. Without proper handling, harvested pods easily lose
freshness, becoming limp, shriveled, and prone to microbial spoilage.
Postharvest losses of sitaw may reach 25–35% under poor handling
conditions, particularly in production areas where access to cold storage
and efficient transport facilities is limited.
To minimize losses and maintain quality, the application of proper
postharvest practices is essential. The Philippine National Standards (PNS),
such as PNS/BAFS 198:2017 – Code of Practice for the Packaging and
Transport of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, provide guidelines on the safe
handling, sorting, packaging, and transport of vegetables like sitaw.

Implementing effective postharvest handling—from harvesting at the

right maturity, careful cleaning, sorting, and bundling, to packaging,
storage, and transport—ensures that sitaw pods remain fresh, crisp, and
marketable. These practices not only extend shelf life but also help improve
farmers‘ income and consumer satisfaction.

121
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bundling – The method of tying string bean pods together in small groups
for easy handling and selling.

Harvesting – The process of collecting mature but tender string bean pods
for consumption or marketing.

Market Quality – The standard of appearance, freshness, and tenderness

that makes string beans acceptable and desirable to consumers.

Pods – The edible part of string beans harvested while still young and
tender.

Postharvest – The stage after harvesting string beans that includes handling,
packaging, storage, and transport to maintain quality.

Shelf Life – The length of time string bean pods remain fresh and suitable
for consumption after harvest.

Sorting – The process of separating string bean pods based on size, color,
and quality before packaging and selling.

Spoilage – The deterioration of string beans due to microbial growth,

physical damage, or water loss, making them unfit for consumption.

Storage – The practice of keeping harvested string beans under controlled

conditions to preserve freshness and extend marketability.

String Beans (Vigna unguiculata subsp. Sesquipedalis) – A common legume

vegetable in the Philippines known for its long, slender green pods.

122
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF SITAW

 Harvesting
 Picking sitaw pods at the right maturity stage when they
are tender, smooth, and free from fiber.

 Cleaning

 Removing dirt, dust, and field debris from the harvested

sitaw pods.

 Sorting

 Separating sitaw pods according to size, color, shape, and

quality.

 Grading

 Classifying sitaw pods into categories (e.g., premium,

standard, reject) based on market standards.

 Bundling

 Tying sitaw pods into small bunches for convenience in

handling and selling.

 Packaging

 Placing sorted and bundled sitaw pods in containers (plastic

crates, bamboo baskets, or cartons) for transport and
distribution.

 Pre-cooling

 Lowering the temperature of harvested sitaw pods to

remove field heat and slow down respiration.

 Storage

 Keeping sitaw pods under suitable temperature and

humidity conditions to extend shelf life.

 Transport

 Moving packaged sitaw pods carefully to markets or

distribution points while minimizing physical damage.

123
 Marketing

 Displaying and selling sitaw pods in local markets,

supermarkets, or other outlets while ensuring freshness and
quality.

124
POST- HARVEST HANDLING OF SQUASH
(Cucurbita spp)

125
INTRODUCTION

Squash (Cucurbita spp.) is

a valuable horticultural crop
widely grown in tropical and
subtropical regions, including the
Philippines. It is rich in vitamins,
minerals, and dietary fiber,
making it an important
component of human diets.
However, like other vegetables,
squash is perishable and highly
susceptible to post-harvest losses
caused by improper handling,
environmental conditions, and
biological factors. Effective post-
harvest handling practices are
therefore necessary to maintain
quality, reduce spoilage, and
[Link]
extend marketability. These
practices include harvesting at the proper maturity stage, cleaning, grading,
curing, packaging, storage, and transportation. Proper post-harvest handling
not only benefits farmers and traders by reducing losses but also ensures
that consumers receive safe, nutritious, and high-quality squash.
Like many vegetable crops, squash is highly perishable after harvest.
As a non-climacteric crop, it does not ripen further once harvested, but it
remains sensitive to handling and environmental conditions. Without proper
management, squash fruits are prone to mechanical damage, dehydration,
microbial decay, chilling injury, and weight loss—all of which can lower
their market value and consumer acceptability.
In the Philippines, postharvest losses of vegetables, including squash,
remain high, often reaching 20% to 40% due to poor infrastructure, lack of
cold storage facilities, and improper handling practices. To address these
challenges, the Philippine National Standards (PNS), particularly PNS/BAFS
198:2017 – Code of Practice for the Packaging and Transport of Fresh Fruits
and Vegetables, provide guidelines on postharvest handling, packaging, and
distribution. These standards highlight the importance of harvesting at the
right maturity, sorting, cleaning, curing, proper storage temperatures,
controlled atmosphere, and suitable packaging and transport systems to
maintain quality from farm to market.

Therefore, effective postharvest handling of squash is essential to

extend its shelf life, preserve nutritional and sensory quality, and minimize
losses. By following proper harvesting, sorting, cleaning, curing, storage,
packaging, and transport protocols, farmers and traders can meet consumer
demand, reduce waste, and enhance profitability in both domestic and
export markets.

126
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Curing – A process of holding squash at specific temperature and humidity

conditions to heal minor injuries and harden the rind.

Ethylene – A natural plant hormone that influences ripening and senescence

of fruits and vegetables.

Grading – Sorting of squash based on size, weight, shape, and overall

quality.

Harvest Index – A set of criteria that indicates the optimum time to harvest
squash for best quality and storage life.

Packaging – The method of enclosing squash in containers to protect them

from damage during handling and transport.

Post-Harvest Loss – The measurable decrease in quantity or quality of

squash after harvest due to poor handling or unfavorable conditions.

Respiration Rate – The rate at which squash consumes oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide, affecting its shelf life.

Shelf Life – The period during which harvested squash remains acceptable in
terms of appearance, texture, flavor, and nutritional value.

Storage Temperature – The recommended temperature at which squash

should be kept to maintain quality and prolong shelf life.

Transpiration – The process of moisture loss from squash that leads to

weight reduction and shriveling during storage.

127
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF SQUASH

1. Harvesting

 Stage of Harvest: Squash should be harvested when fruits are fully

developed, with a hardened rind and a deep, uniform color. A good
indicator is when the skin resists puncture by a thumbnail and the
peduncle (stem) turns brown and dries.
 Time of Harvest: Harvest is best done during the cooler hours of the
day (early morning or late afternoon) to reduce water loss and
maintain freshness.
 Method:
o Use sanitized knives or clippers.
o Avoid pulling or twisting fruits from the vine to prevent stem-
end injury.
o Cut the fruit with a portion of the stem (2–4 cm) to avoid
decay.

 Handling: Handle fruits gently to prevent bruising and rind scratches.

Do not drop or pile fruits roughly.
2. Field Handling and Transport

 Harvested squash should be moved quickly to a shaded and well-

ventilated area to reduce sunscald and excessive field heat.
 Use clean, ventilated crates or bamboo baskets padded with paper or
soft lining instead of sacks to avoid damage.
 Transport fruits carefully to the storage or packing area soon after
harvest.
3. Sorting and Grading

 Sorting: Remove immature, cracked, overripe, insect-damaged, or

diseased fruits.
 Grading: Squash is usually graded according to size, shape, weight,
and absence of defects.
 Grade A: Large, uniform, firm, and free from defects.
 Grade B: Slight defects allowed (minor scratches or shape
irregularities) but still good quality. Grade C: More defects accepted
but fruits are still usable for processing.
4. Cleaning and Sanitation

 Washing: Wash fruits in clean water to remove dirt, latex, and field
debris.
 Sanitizing: Wash water may be treated with food-grade disinfectants
(such as chlorine solution at safe levels) to reduce microbial load.
 Drying: Air-dry fruits on clean racks or absorbent materials to prevent
moisture build-up that can cause rotting.

128
5. Pre-cooling and Storage

 Pre-cooling: Conduct pre-cooling after harvest to remove field heat

and prolong shelf life.
 Storage Conditions: Store squash at 10–13 °C with 50–70% relative
humidity to minimize shrinkage and decay.
 Shelf Life: Properly stored squash can last several weeks to months,
depending on variety and handling practices.

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Post-Harvest Handling of Strawberry
(Fragaria ananassa)

130
INTRODUCTION

Strawberries (Fragaria
ananassa) are one of the most
popular high-value crops in the
Philippines, especially in the
highland areas such as La
Trinidad, Benguet, which is
considered the ―Strawberry
Capital of the Philippines.‖ The
crop contributes significantly to
the livelihood of smallholder
farmers, provides raw materials
for local processing industries,
and serves as a draw for agro-
tourism in the Cordillera region.
Beyond their economic value,
strawberries are also nutritionally
important as they are rich in
vitamin C, antioxidants, and dietary fiber, making them a highly demanded
fruit both in domestic and export markets.

Despite their popularity, strawberries are among the most perishable

fruits because of their delicate skin, high moisture content, and
susceptibility to microbial spoilage. As a non-climacteric fruit, strawberries
do not continue to ripen after harvest, which means their quality is entirely
dependent on how they are harvested, handled, and stored. Without proper
postharvest practices, fruits can suffer from rapid softening, bruising, fungal
infections, and water loss, leading to high postharvest losses that can reach
up to 30–40% in tropical conditions. This makes the implementation of
appropriate handling procedures crucial to ensure that fruits reach
consumers in good condition.

In the Philippine context, the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries

Standards (BAFS) under the Department of Agriculture has developed the
Philippine National Standard (PNS/BAFPS 49:2007) on Good Agricultural
Practices (GAP) for fresh fruits and vegetables. This standard provides
specific guidelines not only for production but also for postharvest handling,
packaging, storage, and distribution of strawberries and other high-value
crops. These guidelines are aligned with international quality and safety
standards, ensuring that Philippine strawberries remain competitive in both
local and global [Link] adhering to the PNS guidelines and modern
postharvest technologies, farmers and traders can minimize spoilage,
improve marketability, and sustain the economic viability of strawberry
farming in the Philippines.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) – A set of principles and technical

recommendations that address food safety, environmental management,
and worker welfare in the production and handling of crops, including
strawberries (PNS/BAFPS 49:2007).

Non-climacteric Fruit – A type of fruit, such as strawberry, that does not

undergo significant ripening after harvest and must therefore be
harvested fully ripe to ensure desirable quality (UC Davis, 2025).

Packaging – The practice of placing strawberries in suitable containers

such as clamshells or ventilated cartons to protect against mechanical
injury, contamination, and moisture loss while allowing airflow for
freshness.

Philippine National Standard (PNS) – Officially approved guidelines

developed by the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS)
that provide science-based requirements for quality assurance, food
safety, and standardization of agricultural products in the Philippines.

Postharvest Handling – The series of operations applied to agricultural

produce immediately after harvest such as cleaning, sorting, grading,
packaging, storing, and transporting, with the goal of maintaining
quality, safety, and extending shelf life (PNS/BAFPS 49:2007).

Pre-cooling – The rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested

produce to slow down respiration, reduce microbial activity, and delay
deterioration. For strawberries, forced-air cooling or hydrocooling is
commonly applied.

Relative Humidity (RH) – The amount of water vapor present in the air
expressed as a percentage of the maximum it can hold at a given
temperature. Strawberries require high RH (90–95%) during storage to
minimize water loss and shriveling.

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Respiration Rate – The biological process in which harvested fruits
continue to consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide, water, and
heat. A higher respiration rate, such as in strawberries, leads to faster
deterioration if not properly managed.

Shelf Life – The length of time a fruit remains acceptable for

consumption in terms of appearance, taste, and safety under specific
storage conditions. Strawberries typically have a short shelf life of 3–7
days under ambient conditions.

Sorting and Grading – The process of separating fruits based on size,

shape, ripeness, and the absence of defects or damage to ensure
uniformity and meet market standards (PNS/BAFPS 49:2007).

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POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF STRAWBERRY

1. Harvesting
- Strawberries must be harvested at the fully ripe stage, as they are
non-climacteric and do not ripen further after harvest.
- Harvesting is done early in the morning when field temperature is
low to minimize respiration and water loss.
- Fruits are picked by pinching the stem with the calyx intact to
reduce bruising and prolong freshness.
- Only healthy, uniform, and pest-free fruits are harvested;
overripe, immature, or diseased berries are excluded.
2. Field Handling
- Harvested fruits should be placed in clean, shallow containers
lined with soft material to prevent bruising.
- Containers should never be overfilled to avoid compression
damage.
- Handling should be gentle, as strawberries are highly susceptible
to mechanical injury.
3. Pre-cooling (Removal of Field Heat)
- Immediately after harvest, strawberries should be cooled within 1
hour to slow respiration and decay.
- Forced-air cooling is the most effective method, while
hydrocooling (cold water immersion) and room cooling can also be
applied.
- Optimal pre-cooling temperature is 0–2 °C with 90–95% relative
humidity (RH).
4. Sorting and Grading
- Fruits are sorted to remove damaged, diseased, or misshapen
berries.
- Grading is based on size, color, and uniformity following PNS
standards. Example:
Extra Class: superior quality, uniform, free from defects.

Class I: good quality with minor defects allowed.

Class II: acceptable for local markets but with more visible defects.

5. Cleaning
- Strawberries should not be washed unless necessary, as excess
moisture encourages mold growth.
- If cleaning is required, fruits are rinsed quickly with clean,
potable water containing a mild food-grade sanitizer (e.g.,
chlorine solution at 50–100 ppm), then dried immediately.
6. Packaging
- Packaging materials must be clean, ventilated, and food-grade.
- Common containers include plastic clamshells, trays, or cartons
lined with soft padding to minimize damage.
- Packaging must allow for proper air circulation during storage and
transport.

134
- Each package should be properly labeled with product name,
grade, net weight, place of origin, and date of harvest in
compliance with PNS.
7. Storage
- Optimal storage is at 0–2 °C with 90–95% RH, where strawberries
can last up to 5–7 days.
- Avoid exposure to ethylene-producing fruits (e.g., bananas,
mangoes) as strawberries are sensitive and will deteriorate faster.
- Storage areas must be clean, pest-free, and well-ventilated to
maintain product quality.
8. Transport and Distribution
- Transport vehicles should be refrigerated or well-insulated to
maintain cold chain conditions.
- Fruits must be handled carefully to avoid vibration damage during
transit.
- Shortening transport time is critical; longer exposure to ambient
conditions leads to rapid quality loss.
- Export shipments must comply with ASEAN and international
standards for packaging, labeling, and hygiene.
9. Retail Handling
- At the retail level, strawberries should be displayed in a cool,
shaded environment away from direct sunlight.
- Stocks must be rotated using the first-in, first-out (FIFO) method
to minimize losses.
- Unsold fruits after several days should be diverted to processing
(jams, preserves, puree) to reduce waste.

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POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
SUGARCANE

136
INTRODUCTION

Sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum L.) is one of the most
important industrial crops
cultivated worldwide, especially
in tropical and subtropical
regions. It is primarily grown for
its high sucrose content, which is
processed into sugar, jaggery,
molasses, ethanol, and several
other by-products. In countries
like the Philippines, Brazil, India,
and Thailand, sugarcane plays a
vital role in both the economy and
rural livelihood, providing raw
materials for the sugar industry,
employment for farmers, and
income for millions of households.

The cultivation of sugarcane has a long history that dates back

thousands of years, with its origins traced to South and Southeast Asia. From
there, it spread across the globe through trade and colonization, eventually
becoming one of the most valuable commercial crops. Today, sugarcane is
not only a major source of sugar but also a renewable raw material for
biofuel production and other industrial uses, contributing to energy security
and sustainable development.

Unlike grain crops that can be stored for long periods, sugarcane is a
highly perishable crop. Once harvested, it begins to lose sucrose rapidly due
to respiration, enzymatic activities, and microbial action. This deterioration
results in lower sugar recovery if the canes are not processed immediately.
Therefore, proper post-harvest handling and management are crucial to
maintaining the quality of sugarcane and maximizing sugar yield.

Post-harvest activities in sugarcane involve a series of operations

starting from harvesting in the field, handling and transportation, cleaning,
juice extraction, clarification, crystallization, and finally, storage and
distribution of processed sugar. Each step is essential to minimize losses,
preserve sucrose content, and ensure that the raw material delivered to the
sugar mills meets the standards for efficient processing.

The sugar industry is considered a pillar of rural economies,

particularly in developing countries where smallholder farmers depend on
sugarcane cultivation as a major source of livelihood. It generates
employment not only in farming but also in processing, transportation, and
related industries. In the Philippines, sugarcane remains one of the most
significant industrial crops, supporting both domestic consumption and
export demand.

137
 Efficient post-harvest practices not only improve sugar recovery but
also enhance the overall productivity of the sugar industry. By minimizing
post-harvest losses, farmers, millers, and consumers all benefit through
improved income, reduced waste, and higher quality end products.

138
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bagasse – fibrous residue left after juice extraction from sugarcane, used as
fuel or raw material in paper and board industries

By-products – secondary products obtained from sugarcane processing, such

as molasses, bagasse, and press mud.

Centrifugation – separation of sugar crystals from molasses using centrifugal

force.

Clarification – process of removing impurities such as soil, wax, and non-

sugars from cane [Link] – process of forming sugar crystals
from concentrated cane juice or syrup during sugar manufacturing.

Ethanol – an alcohol produced from molasses or juice fermentation, used as

biofuel, solvent, or for industrial purposes.

Harvesting – cutting or gathering of mature sugarcane stalks in the field for

processing.

Juice Extraction – mechanical process of squeezing out the juice from

sugarcane stalks using mills or diffusers.

Post-Harvest Activities – operations performed immediately after

harvesting to maintain quality, reduce losses, and prepare crops for
processing or consumption.

Press Mud (Filter Cake) – solid waste by-product from juice clarification,
often used as organic fertilizer or soil conditioner.

Sucrose – the main type of sugar present in sugarcane, composed of glucose

and fructose, which is crystallized to produce table sugar.

Sugarcane – (Saccharum officinarum L.) a tropical and subtropical crop

grown primarily for its high sucrose content.

Transportation – the movement of harvested sugarcane from the field to

sugar mills, a critical step in maintaining quality and reducing sucrose loss.

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POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF SUGARCANE

1. Harvesting
•Cutting canes close to the ground where sucrose concentration is highest.
Removal of green tops and leaves.

2. Bundling and Transport

•Stalks are bundled and transported to mills as quickly as possible (ideally
within 24 hours).
•Delays cause sucrose loss due to respiration and microbial action.

3. Washing and Cleaning

•Canes are washed to remove soil, trash, and extraneous matter.

4. Crushing and Juice Extraction

•Cane stalks are crushed by rollers to extract juice.
•Bagasse is collected as a by-product.

5. Clarification
•Juice is heated and treated with lime to remove impurities.
•Clarified juice is filtered and prepared for concentration.

6. Evaporation and Concentration

•Excess water is removed by evaporation.
•Syrup is concentrated until it reaches the required sugar level.

7. Crystallization
•Concentrated syrup is seeded to promote crystal formation.

8. Centrifugation
•Sugar crystals are separated from molasses.

9. Drying and Grading

•Crystals are dried and classified according to size and quality.

10. Packaging and Storage

•Sugar is packed in bags (often 50 kg) and stored in dry warehouses.
•Proper storage prevents caking and microbial damage.

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POST - HARVEST HANDLING OF SWEET
POTATO (Ipomoea batatas)

141
INTRODUCTION

Sweet potato (Ipomoea

batatas) is a globally significant
root crop known for its
nutritional, economic, and
agricultural value. Originating
from Central or South America, it
now thrives in Asia, Africa, and
the Pacific Islands due to its
adaptability to marginal soils and
drought-prone areas. As a staple
food and industrial crop, it plays
a crucial role in food security,
especially in developing nations.
It is cultivated mainly for its
sweet, starchy tuberous roots,
though vines and leaves are also
used for livestock feed and processing.

Nutritionally, sweet potatoes are rich in complex carbohydrates,

dietary fiber, and micronutrients like vitamin C, B6, potassium, and beta-
carotene, particularly in orange-fleshed varieties. These varieties are vital
in combating vitamin A deficiency—a significant public health issue. A study
of 86 accessions revealed high starch (~48.5g/100g dry weight) and protein
content (2.15–7.11g/100g DW) in roots, while leaves contained up to 31%
crude protein and substantial minerals such as iron, calcium, and potassium.
Their antioxidant capacity and phenolic content make them beneficial for
heart health and immunity. Formulated blends of sweet potato and corn
have also shown promise in enhancing child nutrition.

Globally, sweet potato production reached around 102.34 billion

kilograms in 2023, with China contributing over 55% (Freshdi, 2025).
However, production has recently plateaued or declined in some areas—for
instance, the Philippines saw a 7.5% drop in production in Q2 2023 compared
to the previous year (PSA, 2023). The global output is projected to decrease
slightly to 93 million tons in 2024, breaking a four-year growth trend
(IndexBox, 2024). Despite this, sweet potato remains vital due to its
resilience and short growth cycle (90–150 days), making it ideal for
smallholder farming systems.

In terms of mechanization, innovations are being introduced to

increase harvesting efficiency and reduce post-harvest losses. Peng et al.
(2024) highlighted improvements in harvester designs to minimize skin
damage, soil adhesion, and breakage. In Korea, a prototype double-
conveyor harvester with rubber-padded conveyors showed lower damage
rates and improved efficiency. In Indonesia, using hand tractors for land
preparation—compared to manual hoeing—led to significantly higher yields
(e.g., clone L-11-2 yielding 32,947 kg/ha). These technologies offer hope for
more efficient, labor-saving, and productive sweet potato farming.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Curing
A process of storing sweet potatoes at warm temperatures and high
humidity to heal wounds and reduce moisture loss.
Grading
The classification of sweet potatoes based on size, shape, and
quality.
Maturity Indices
Indicators used to determine the optimal harvest time, such as skin
texture and root size.
Packaging
The use of materials and methods to protect sweet potatoes during
handling, storage, and transportation.
Post-Harvest Handling
Operations carried out after harvesting to maintain quality, reduce
losses, and prolong shelf life.
Relative Humidity (RH)
The amount of water vapor present in air expressed as a percentage
of the maximum amount air can hold at a given temperature.
Respiration Rate
The rate at which sweet potatoes consume oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide after harvest, influencing spoilage rate.
Sanitation
Procedures aimed at cleaning and disinfecting to reduce microbial
contamination.
Shelf Life
The length of time sweet potatoes remain fresh and acceptable for
consumption under specific storage conditions.

143
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES

A. Harvesting

- Harvest sweet potatoes 3–5 months after planting when roots have
matured.

- Dig carefully to avoid bruising or cutting the tubers.

- Harvest during cooler parts of the day to minimize heat stress.

B. Curing

- Cure freshly harvested roots at 29–32°C and 85–90% relative humidity for 4–
7 days.

- Curing heals wounds, toughens skin, and reduces moisture loss and decay.

C. Cleaning and Sorting

- Gently remove soil without damaging the skin; avoid washing unless
necessary.

- Sort and grade tubers by size, shape, and quality.

- Remove damaged, diseased, or malformed roots.

D. Packaging

- Use ventilated crates or baskets to allow airflow.

- Avoid overpacking to prevent mechanical injury.

E. Storage

- Store at 13–16°C and 85–90% relative humidity to extend shelf life.

Avoid temperatures below 13°C to prevent chilling injury.

F. Transportation

- Handle carefully to avoid bruising.

- Use clean, well-ventilated vehicles.

- Minimize transport time to maintain quality.

144
G. Marketing

- Deliver to markets promptly.

- Maintain proper handling during display to prevent damage and spoilage.

145
 POST HARVEST HANDLING OF
TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica L.)

146
INTRODUCTION
Tamarind (Tamarindus
indica L.) is a fruit tree in the
family of Fabaaceae under the
genus Tamarindus. Tree found
most of the tropical and
subtropical country. India is the
largest producer of tamarind in
the world. The tamarind fruit
comprises pulp, seed, shell, and
fibre. It's most valued part is pulp
in Hindi known as phool Imli used
for food, cultural, social,
medicinal and income generation
purposes. Storage of tamarind, for
a long period is a problem.
The value chain of
tamarind, however, faces significant challenges in the post-harvest phase.
Post-harvest activities are a critical series of steps from the moment the
fruit is harvested until it is consumed or processed. Effective management
at this stage is crucial for minimizing losses, preserving quality, and adding
value to the product. According to recent research by Deepthi et al. (2025),
a staggering 27.9% of total production is lost at the farm level, mainly due
to inefficient manual harvesting, improper sorting, and inadequate curing
and packaging. Similarly, Thomas & George (2023) highlight that lack of
proper storage and packaging, such as using unsealed bags, can lead to
significant post-harvest losses.
Recent literature shows the growing emphasis on technological
advancements to address these issues. Studies have focused on the
mechanization of traditional processing steps, such as dehulling and
deseeding, to improve efficiency and reduce labor costs (Thingujam et al.,
2023).
The health benefits of tamarind stem largely from its potent
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, attributed to high levels of
polyphenols and flavonoids, which help mitigate oxidative stress and reduce
the risk of chronic diseases. Nutritionally, the pulp is an excellent source of
dietary fiber (aiding digestion), magnesium, calcium (essential for bone
health), and Thiami (Vitamin), while its seed extracts contain
polysaccharide (TSP) used in modern medicine to stabilize the tear film and
treat dry eye syndrome. Its composition is notably characterized by a
balanced combination of reducing sugars (30-41%) and a high concentration
of tartaric acid (8-18%)—the primary source of its unique flavor profile.
To meet increasing commercial demand, the labor-intensive
traditional processing methods are being replaced by recent innovations in
machinery. Key advancements include commercial de-seeders and seed
removal machines capable of processing large volumes, automated
pulping/paste machines that efficiently separate fiber and seeds, and
hydraulic cake pressing machines that ensure the consistent formation of
compacted pulp blocks, streamlining production and minimizing wastage.

147
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Defibering is the act of removing the fibrous strands that run through the
tamarind pulp.

Dehulling is the process of removing the outer, brittle shell or hull from the
tamarind pod.

Deseeding is the process of separating the hard, round seeds from the
fibrous tamarind pulp.

Post-harvest is the phase of crop production immediately after harvesting,

encompassing all operations from the time of detachment from the parent
plant to the point of consumption or processing.

Value-added products is processed products that increase the economic

value and marketability of the raw tamarind fruit, such as tamarind paste,
concentrate, powder, candies, or syrups.

148
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF TAMARIND

1. Harvesting

 This activity involves determining the optimal time for fruit collection
and the method of removal from the tree.
 Maturity Indicators: The fruit is considered fully mature when the
outer shell develops brittleness, the seed testa (outer layer) changes
color, and a hollow sound is generated when the pod is pressed,
indicating the pulp has shrunk due to moisture loss.
 Method of Collection
 Manual Hand Picking - Ripe pods are individually plucked by
hand, which is labor-intensive but results in minimal damage.
 Clipping/Picking Poles - Using a hook or clipping device
mounted on a long pole for fruits high on the tree.
 Shaking - The branches or trunk may be gently shaken, either
manually or using mechanical shakers, to cause the dry pods to
fall onto sheets or nets placed below.

2. Curing and Drying

 This is the initial conditioning step necessary to prepare the pod for
easy separation of the pulp from the shell and fibers.
 Primary Drying (Curing) - The harvested whole pods are spread out to
dry, typically under the sun for a few days (3–4 days), to reduce the
moisture content (MC) to less than 20% .
 The reduced MC prevents the pulp from sticking to the hull and
fibers, which is essential for efficient dehulling and deseeding.

3. Dehulling (Shell Removal)

 Using a tamarind dehuller machine, which is more hygienic, faster,

and more efficient for large-scale operations.

4. De-fibering (Fiber Removal)

 The longitudinal stringy fibers that run along the pulp are stripped off
manually or mechanically. This is often done simultaneously with
dehulling and deseeding.

5. Deseeding (Seed Removal)

 Traditional - Seeds are removed by hand, often involving hand-

pounding the pulp blocks with a mortar and pestle or using a sharp
needle to pop the seeds out.
 Mechanical - Using a tamarind deseeder machine or an integrated de-
shelling and deseeding unit to automate this labor-intensive process.

149
6. Preservation and Conditioning of Pulp

 The clean pulp is treated to enhance its quality, appearance, and

shelf life before final packaging.
 Anti-Browning Treatment - The pulp may be treated with anti-
browning agents like sulfur fumes or ascorbic acid to inhibit non-
enzymatic browning (Maillard reaction), which darkens the pulp over
time.
 Salting/Oiling - In traditional methods, the clean pulp is mixed with
salt (Sodium Chloride) and/or lightly coated with oil before storage.
Salt acts as a preservative and helps prevent pest infestation.
 Pressing/Caking - The clean, conditioned pulp is compressed into
dense, compact blocks or uniform cakes using a hydraulic or screw
press. This standardized form is ideal for storage, transport, and
commercial trading.

7. Packaging and Storage

 The final steps ensure the product maintains its quality until it
reaches the consumer.
 Packaging - The compressed pulp blocks are tightly wrapped to
prevent contamination, insect infestation, and re-absorption of
moisture. Common materials include aluminum foil, food-grade
plastic films, or sealed containers .
 Storage Conditions - Packed pulp blocks are stored in a cool, dry, and
well-ventilated location for extended periods.
 Refrigerated - For premium products, refrigerated storage can
significantly reduce browning and further extend stability, especially
when combined with appropriate packaging like aluminum foil.
8. Value Addition

The pulp is processed into various value-added products to increase its

market value. These include:

 Tamarind paste and concentrate for culinary use.

 Tamarind powder for a convenient, long-lasting form.
 Tamarind candies, pickles, and beverages.
 Tamarind Kernel Powder (TKP)from the seeds, used as a sizing
agent in the textile industry.

150
POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF TOMATO

151
INTRODUCTION

Tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum) is a climacteric
fruit of global importance,
cultivated extensively for both
fresh consumption and processing.
In the Philippines, tomato
production plays a vital role in
rural livelihoods and local
economies, particularly in regions
such as Nueva Ecija, Ilocos Norte,
and Bukidnon. Despite its
economic potential, tomato
remains highly vulnerable to
postharvest losses due to its soft
pericarp, high respiration rate,
and sensitivity to ethylene. These
losses—often caused by improper harvesting, rough handling, poor
packaging, and lack of cold chain infrastructure—can account for up to 30–
50% of total yield, undermining farmer income and food availability
(Philippine Department of Agriculture, 2022).

Postharvest handling encompasses a series of interconnected operations

aimed at preserving fruit quality from the moment of harvest to the point of
consumption. These include harvesting at the correct maturity stage, sorting
and grading, use of appropriate containers, pre-cooling, and storage under
controlled temperature and humidity. For tomatoes, harvesting at the
mature green or breaker stage is recommended for long-distance transport,
while fully ripe fruits are preferred for immediate market sale (Kader,
2002). Packaging innovations such as stackable plastic crates have been
shown to reduce bruising and microbial contamination compared to
traditional woven baskets (Ali et al., 2019).

In recent years, low-cost technologies like Zero Energy Cool Chambers

(ZECC) and evaporative cooling systems have gained attention in tropical
regions for their ability to extend shelf life without reliance on electricity.
Moreover, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and ethylene absorbers are
being explored to delay ripening and reduce spoilage. These interventions
are especially relevant in the Philippine context, where smallholder farmers
often lack access to refrigerated storage and efficient transport systems.

152
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Field Heat – The natural heat retained by freshly harvested tomatoes that
must be removed promptly to slow down respiration and deterioration.

Harvesting Maturity – The stage of tomato development at which fruits are

harvested, usually determined by size, color, and firmness, to ensure
market quality and storability.

Packaging – The use of containers or materials to protect tomatoes from

mechanical damage, contamination, and moisture loss during handling,
storage, and transport.

Physiological Disorders – Non-pathogenic conditions (e.g., chilling injury,

blossom end rot, sunscald) that affect tomato quality and marketability
during postharvest handling.

Postharvest Handling – The series of practices applied to tomatoes

immediately after harvest to maintain quality, extend shelf life, and
minimize losses until consumption or processing.

Pre-cooling – The rapid removal of field heat from harvested tomatoes

through methods such as forced-air cooling or hydro-cooling to preserve
freshness.

Respiration Rate – The metabolic activity of tomatoes after harvest,

involving oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide release, which influences
ripening and shelf life.

Sorting and Grading – The process of classifying tomatoes based on size,

shape, color, and freedom from defects to ensure uniformity and meet
market standards.

Storage – The keeping of harvested tomatoes under controlled conditions of

temperature and relative humidity to slow down ripening and extend shelf
life.

153
Transportation – The transfer of tomatoes from farm to market or
processing facilities, where proper handling is crucial to avoid mechanical
damage and bruising.

154
POST-HARVEST ACTIVITY OF TOMATO

1. Harvesting

 Tomatoes should be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage

depending on market destination—breaker stage for long-distance
transport, and full ripe stage for local markets.
 Gentle handling is crucial to avoid bruising and skin damage.

2. Sorting and Grading

 Fruits are sorted to remove damaged, diseased, or overripe

tomatoes.
 Grading is done based on size, color, and ripeness to meet market
standards and consumer expectations.

3. Cleaning and Sanitizing

 Tomatoes may be washed with clean water or sanitized using

chlorine solutions to reduce microbial load.
 Proper drying is necessary to prevent fungal growth during storage.

4. Packaging

 Use of ventilated plastic crates is recommended over traditional

baskets to reduce compression damage and improve airflow.
 Packaging materials should be clean, stackable, and suited to
transport conditions.

5. Storage

 Tomatoes are best stored at 12–20°C with 85–90% relative humidity

to slow down ripening and reduce decay.
 For small-scale farmers, Zero Energy Cool Chambers (ZECC) offer a
low-cost alternative to refrigeration.

6. Transportation

 Vehicles should be clean, shaded, and well-ventilated.

 Avoid overloading and stacking to prevent crushing and overheating.

155