Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

[Link] & [Link] COMMERCE COLLEGE

(MANAGED BY SARDAR PATEL EDUCATION TRUST)
BCA, BBA(ITM) & PGDCA PROGRAMME
SY BCA SEM : 03 || US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking
UNIT 02 : Transmission media and OSI Reference Model

Unit 01: < Transmission media and OSI Reference Model >
Topics
 Guided and Unguided Media
 Transmission media |(Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable and Fiber Optics Cable )
 OSI Reference Model
 TCP/IP Model
 Concept of CSMA with CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA
Reference Books:
1. Tanenbaum A.S. : Computer Networks, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 1997
2. Stallings W : Data and Computer Communication, 3rd Edition,

GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of
the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electrical current. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that
accepts and transports signals in the form of light

UNGUIDED MEDIA
Unguided media or wireless communication transports electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. Instead, signals are broadcast through air or a vacuum (or, in a few cases,
water), and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Radio Frequency Allocation
The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio communication is divided into
eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities. These bands are rated
from very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).

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VLF Very Low Frequency VHF Very High Frequency

LF Low Frequency UHF Ultra High Frequency
MF Middle Frequency SHF Super High Frequency
HF High Frequency EHF Extremely High Frequency

Difference between Guided Media and Unguided Media

No. Guided Media Unguided Media

The guided media is also called The unguided media is also called wireless
1. wired communication or bounded communication or unbounded transmission
transmission media. media.

The signal energy propagates The signal energy propagates through the air
2.
through wires in guided media. in unguided media.

Guided media is used for point-to- Unguided media is generally suited for radio
3.
point communication. broadcasting in all directions.

4. It is cost-effective. It is expensive.

Signals are in the form of voltage,

Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
5. current, or photons in the guided
waves in unguided media.
media.

Examples of guided media are

Examples of unguided media are microwave
6. twisted pair wires, coaxial cables,
or radio links and infrared light.
and optical fiber cables.

It sends out a signal that indicates

7. It does not indicate which way to travel.
which way to go.

For a shorter distance, this is the

8. For longer distances, this method is used.
best option.

9. It is unable to pass through walls. It can pass through walls.

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Transmission Media
Transmission Media are roughly grouped into guided media, such as copper wire and fiber
optics.
Digital data can be transmitted over many different types of media.
Selecting a transmission medium is guided by comparing transmission requirements against the
medium’s characteristics.

Twisted-Pair Cable

 A twisted pair cable consists of two insulated standards of copper wire twisted around
each other, typically around 1mm.
 The twisted form is used to reduce electrical interference to similar pairs close by. (Two
parallel wires constitute a simple antenna a twisted pair does not)
 The most common application of the twisted pairs is the telephone system. Nearly all
telephones are connected to the telephone office by a twisted pair.
 Twisted pair can run several kilometers without amplification but for longer distances,
repeaters are needed. Twisted pair can be used for either analog or digital transmission.
The bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire.
Twisted-pair cable comes in two forms: unshielded and shielded.
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is the most common type of telecommunication medium
in use today. A twisted pair consists of two conductors (usually copper), each with its own
colored plastic insulation.
The plastic insulation is color-banded for identification (see Figure). Colors are used both to
identify the specific conductors in a cable and to indicate which wires belong in pairs and how
they relate to other pairs in a larger bundle.

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In the past, two parallel flat wires were used for communication. However, electromagnetic
interference from devices such as a motor can create noise over those wires.
If the two wires are parallel, the wire closest to the source of the noise gets more interference
and ends up with a higher voltage level than the wire farther away, which results in an uneven
load and a damaged signal.
If however, the two wires are twisted around each other at regular intervals (between 2 and 12
twists per foot), each wire is closer to the noise source for half the time and farther away for the
other half. With twisting, therefore, the cumulative effect of the interference is equal on both
wires. Twisting does not always eliminate the impact of noise, but does significantly reduce it.

Advantages of UTP are its cost and ease of use. UTP is cheap, flexible, and easy to
install. Higher grades of UTP are used in many LAN technologies, including Ethernet and
Token Ring.

The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to grade UTP cables
by quality. Categories are determined by cable quality, with I as lowest and 5 as highest.
EIA category is suitable for certain uses and not for others:
 Category 1. The basic twisted-pair cabling previously used in telephone systems.
This level of quality is fine for voice but inadequate for all but low-speed data
communication.
 Category 2. The next higher grade, suitable for voice and for data transmission of up to 4
Mbps.
 Category 3. Required to have at least three twists per foot and can be used for data
transmission of up to 10 Mbps. It is now the standard cable for most telephone systems.
 Category 4. Must also have at least three twists per foot as well as other conditions to bring
the possible transmission rate to 16 Mbps.
 Category 5. Used for data transmission up to 100 Mbps.

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Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

Shielded twisted - pair (STP) cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each
pair of insulated conductors (see Figure).
The metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise. It also can eliminate a
phenomenon called crosstalk, which is the undesired effect of one circuit (or channel) on
another circuit (or channel).
It occurs when one line picks up some of the signals traveling down another line.
This effect can be experienced during telephone conversations when one can hear other
conversations in the background. Shielding each pair of a twisted-pair cable can eliminate most
crosstalk.

Twisted pair cable components

Twisted pair uses RJ-45 telephone connectors to connect to a computer. This is similar to the
RJ-11 telephone connector.
Several components area available to help organize large UTP installation and make them
carrier to work this include:
1. Distribution racks and rack shelves-distribution racks and racks shelves can create
more room for cable where there isn’t much floor space. They are a good way to centralized and
organized n/w than has a lot of connection.
2. Expandable path panels:- This comes in various versions that supports up to 96 ports
and transmission speed of 100 Mbps.
3. Jack:- This single or double RJ-45 jack snap into path panels and wall plates and
support data rates to 100 Mbps.
4. Wall plates:- This supports two or more couplers.

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Coaxial – Cable
Co-axial is the most widely used network cable.
Co-axial is relatively inexpensive, is light, flexible and easy to work with. It is so populated that it
became a safe, easily supported installation.
In its simplest form, co-axial consists of a core made of solid copper surrounded by installation, a
metal shielding and an outer cover.
The core is surrounded by an insulation layer which separates it from the wire mesh. The
braided wire mesh acts as a ground and protect the core from electrical noise and cross talk.
Cross-talk means signals overflow from an adjacent wire.

A non-conductive outer shield usually made of rubber, Teflon and plastic, surrounds entire cable.
Co-axial is a good choice for longer distance and for reliably supporting higher data rates.

The following are a few of the common standards

 RG-8 Used in Thick Ethernet.
 RG-9 Used in Thick Ethernet
 RG-11 Used in Thick Ethernet
 RG-58 Used in Thin Ethernet
 RG-59 Used for T.V
Two types of Co-axial cables are available.
 Base band coaxial cable
 Broad band coaxial cable

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Fiber Optic Cable

Light is a form of electromagnetic energy. It travels at its fastest in a vacuum: 300,000 km/s
(approximately 186,000 mi/s). The speed of light depends on the density of the medium through
which it is traveling (the higher the density, the slower the speed). Fiber optics (optical fibers)
are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a human hair. They are arranged
in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit light signals over long distances.
If you look closely at a single optical fiber, you will see that it has the following parts:
 Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels
 Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the
core
 Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture
Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in bundles in optical cables. The
bundles are protected by the cable's outer covering, called a jacket.

Parts of a single optical fiber

Optical fibers come in two types:
 Single-mode fibers
 Multi-mode fibers
Single-mode fibers have small cores (about 3.5 x 10-4 inches or 9 microns in diameter) and
transmit infrared laser light (wavelength = 1,300 to 1,550 nanometers).
Multi-mode fibers have larger cores (about 2.5 x 10-3 inches or 62.5 microns in diameter) and
transmit infrared light (wavelength = 850 to 1,300 nm) from light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Some optical fibers can be made from plastic. These fibers have a large core (0.04 inches or 1
mm diameter) and transmit visible red light (wavelength = 650 nm) from LEDs.
Advantages of Fiber Optics
 Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper than equivalent
lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider (cable TV, Internet) and you money.
 Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire.

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 Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are thinner than copper wires, more
fibers can be bundled into a given-diameter cable than copper wires. This allows more phone
lines to go over the same cable or more channels to come through the cable into your cable TV
box.
 Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in copper wire.
 Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one fiber do not
interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer phone conversations or
TV reception.
 Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power transmitters can
be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires. Again, this
saves your provider and you money.
 Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information, which is
especially useful in computer networks.
 Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers, there is no fire
hazard.
 Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper wire cable. Fiber-
optic cables take up less space in the ground.
 Flexible - Because fiber optics are so flexible and can transmit and receive light, they are
used in many flexible digital cameras for the following purposes:
 Medical imaging - in bronchoscopes, endoscopes, laparoscopes
 Mechanical imaging - inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and engines (in airplanes,
rockets, space shuttles, cars)
 Plumbing - to inspect sewer lines

 Difference between Fiber and Copper

Fiber Copper
Higher Bandwidth Lower Bandwidth
It need amplifier at 30 Km It need amplifier at 5 Km.
Not affected by surge It is affected by surge
Lighter than copper Higher than copper
More expensive Less expensive
They do not leak height and difficult It is leak up easy and easy to tap.

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to tap.
Security against wire tapers is No security
excellent
It uses photons for data transmit It uses electrons to transmit data
For connecting requires skilled Lay man can handle. Means not
engineers require engineers to connect it.

OSI Model>>>
This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organizations(ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used
in the various layers.
The design of network systems that allows for communication across all seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines a segment of the process of moving information
across a network.
The model is called the ISO OSI(Open Systems Interconnections ) Reference Model
because it deals with connecting open systems-that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.

The OSI Model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the
seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows ;
Figure shows the seven layers of the OSI model.

 Physical Layer
The first (bottommost) layer in the OSI model is the physical layer. The physical layer
coordinates the functions required to create a bit link (a physical connection) between the
sender and receiver.
The physical layer is concerned with the following:

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 Representation of bits. The physical layer transforms a stream of bits (sequence of as or

Is) into an electromagnetic signal to be transmitted over the transmission medium. The bits
are represented as analog or digital signals and are transmitted over guided (cable) or
unguided media (air).
 Data rate. The physical layer also defines how fast data should be sent. It defines the
Transmission Rate-the number of bits sent each second.
 Bit synchronization. The sender and receiver must not only use the same bit rate but
must also be synchronized at the bit level. The duration of a bit should be exactly the same
for the sender and the receiver. Today, most protocols use self synchronizing encoding
schemes. Some protocols also add a sequence of redundant bits, called preamble bits, to
the beginning of the data to help the receiver to synchronize itself with the sender at the bit
level.
 Characteristics of interfaces. The physical layer also defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission medium. In other words, it defines how
the system is connected to the transmission medium.
 Transmission medium. The physical layer is not independent of the transmission medium.
The physical layer of most protocols defines the type of the medium to be used. For
example, the physical layer defines whether the transmission medium is cable or air, and, in
the case of cable, the type and the characteristics of the cable.
 Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can
send; the other can only receive. In half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive,
but not at the same time. In full-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive at the
same time.
 Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for hop-to-hop delivery (a hop can be an end-user,
computer, or a connecting device connecting two networks). This layer combines the bits into
manageable units called frames and delivers the frames to the next hop. In some protocols, it
also transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, into a reliable link; it makes the
physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer). Figure shows this
responsibility of the data link layer in the OSI model.

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Some protocols divide the data link layer into two sublayers: media access control (MAC)
sublayer and logical link control (LLC) sublayer. In this case, the first three responsibilities
(framing, addressing, and media access control) discussed belong to the MAC sublayer and the
last two responsibilities (flow control and error control) belong to the LLC sublayer.
 Framing. When the physical layer does not have anything to send, it may send idle bits
on the link. The idle bits are used to keep the link alive and to let the physical layer of all
stations know that there are no packets being sent even though the physical link is up and
functioning. When the data link layer has a packet for the physical layer to send, it marks the
beginning of the packet with some specific sequence of bits. This sequence of bits informs
the receiver that the link is not in the idle state anymore and that a packet is coming. The
data link layer adds this sequence to frame the packet received from the upper layer. That is
why a packet at the data link layer is called a frame .

 Addressing. In a network, many stations (a connecting device such as a repeater, a

bridge, or a router is also considered a station in this sense) are connected together. To
ensure one-to-one communication from one station to another, each frame should have a
source address to identify the sending station and a destination address to identify the
receiving station. These addresses are sometimes called physical or MAC addresses .

 Medium access control. When stations in a network share the same physical medium, it
may happen that more than one station tries to send data at the same time. There needs to
be a mechanism to resolve this situation. This mechanism is called medium access control
(MAC).
 Flow control. The data link layer can control the rate the frames are sent on the link. It can
use a mechanism to ensure that the receiver is not overwhelmed with the received frames. It
can also use an acknowledgment system that makes sure that the frames are received by
the receiver. Flow control at the data link layer is hop-to-hop, not end-to-end. Each station
ensures that the next station is not overwhelmed with data.
 Error control. The data link layer can add reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
 Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination (end-to-end) delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of

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the packet between two systems on the same network (link), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination
Specific responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
 Creating a logical end-to-end connection. The network layer is responsible for creating a
logical connection between one end and the another. The two end systems should see a
logical connection without worrying about links and their connecting devices. In other words,
a network layer should make a logical network out of many physical networks.
 Hiding the details of the lower layer. The network layer hides the details of the physical
and data link layers from the upper layers. If we change the physical connection or the
protocol in the data link layer, the transport layer should not be aware of it.
 Addressing. The addresses implemented by the data link layer handle the addressing
problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to distinguish the source and destination systems.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to create
internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called
routers or gateways) route the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism. Routing means to find the optimum path from the
many different paths available.

 Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end error-free delivery of the entire message;
the network layer oversees host-to-host delivery of individual packets.
When a packet is received by the end system, the transport layer is responsible for
delivery to the session layer. Specific responsibilities of the transport layer include the
following:

 Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next
but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process
(running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet
to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on

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that computer.

 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with

each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in the transmission.

 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-

oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.

 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.

 Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control
However, error control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually
achieved through retransmission.

 Session Layer

The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems. Specific
responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

 Half- and full-duplex service. In some protocols, the transport layer provides a simplex (one
way) delivery service; this may be sufficient for some applications. However, other
applications may need a half-duplex service. The session layer can be used with the
transport layer to create a half-duplex service for the application program. The session layer

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can also use two transport layer connections to provide a full-duplex (two-way at the same
time) service. For this reason, the session layer is sometimes called the dialog controller
because it can create communication between two end users that looks like a one-at-a-time
dialog (half-duplex) or two at-a-time dialog (full-duplex).
 Synchronization. The session layer allows two end systems to add checkpoints or
synchronization marks during data transmission. This service is very useful for applications
that send a large amount of data in one transport connection. The checkpoint allows the data
sent during the two synchronization marks to be sent and acknowledged.
 Atomization. Sometimes an application needs several transport connections to finish a task.
However, the combination of connections should be treated as one task. If one of the
connections cannot be completed, the whole task should be cancelled. The session layer
can combine these several connections into one task.

 Presentation Layer
Different computers use different syntaxes to define data. For example, some computers use
ASCII code to represent character data; some use EBCDIC. This difference in data
representation, or syntax, must be resolved before computers can communicate
with each other.
The presentation layer is responsible, at the source, to convert the code or data delivered by
the sending application layer to a universally accepted format. At the destination, the
presentation layer is responsible for reformatting the data to a format understood by the
receiving application layer. In other words, the presentation layer allows the two corresponding
application layers to use their own data formats. The application layer at the destination may use
a format that is totally different from the format used by the application layer at the source.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information should be
changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use different
encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from
its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving
machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format. In summary, the
presentation is responsible for resolving architectural differences.

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 Encryption. To carry sensitive information a system must be able to assure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the
resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform
the message back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Date
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text,
audio, and video.
 Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services. In
other words, the application layer provides frequently needed services to users or user
programs.

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Summary of Layer Functions

The functions of the seven layers are summarized in Figure

OVERVIEW OF TCP/IP
In 1969, a project was funded by the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), an
arm of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPA established a packet-switching network of
computers linked by point-to-point leased lines called Advanced Research Project Agency
Network (ARPANET) that provided a basis for early research into networking. The conventions
developed by ARPA to specify how individual computers could communicate across that
network became TCP/IP.

The scope of the services provided by TCP requires that the segment header be extensive (see
Figure). A comparison of the TCP segment format with that of a UDP user datagram shows the
differences between the two protocols. TCP provides a comprehensive range of reliability
functions but sacrifices speed (connections must be established, acknowledgments waited for,
etc.). Because of its smaller frame size, UDP is much faster than TCP, but at the expense of
reliability. A brief description of each field is in order.

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 Source port address. The source port address defines the application program in the
source computer.
 Destination port address. The destination port address defines the application program in
the destination computer.
 Sequence number. A stream of data from the application program may be divided into two
or more TCP segments. The sequence number field shows the position of the data in the
original data stream.
 Acknowledgment number. The 32-bit acknowledgment number is used to acknowledge
the receipt of data from the other communicating device. Thi~ number is valid only if the
ACK bit in the control field (explained later) is set. In this case, it defines the byte sequence
number that is next expected.
 Header length (HLEN). The four-bit HLEN field indicates the number of 32-bit (4-byte)
words in the TCP header. The 4 bits can define a number up to IS. This is multiplied by 4 to
give the total number of bytes in the header. Therefore, the size of the header can be a
maximum of 60 bytes (4 x 15). Since the minimum required size of the header is 20 bytes,
40 bytes are thus available for the options section.
 Reserved. A 6-bit field is reserved for future use.
 Control. Each bit of the 6-bit control field functions individually and independently. A bit can
either define the use of a segment or serve as a validity check for other fields.
The urgent bit, when set, validates the urgent pointer field. Both this bit and the pointer
indicate that the data in the segment are urgent.
The ACK bit, when set, validates the acknowledgment number field. Both are used together
and have different functions, depending on the segment type.
The PSH bit is used to inform the sender that a higher throughput is needed. If possible,

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data must be pushed through paths with higher throughput.

The reset bit is used to reset the connection when there is confusion in the sequence
numbers.
The SYN bit is used for sequence number synchronization in three types of segments:
connection request, connection confirmation (with the ACK bit set), and confirmation
acknowledgment (with the ACK bit set).
The FIN bit is used in connection termination in three types of segments: termination
request, termination confirmation (with the ACK bit set), and acknowledgment of termination
confirmation (with the ACK bit set).
 Window size. The window is a l6-bit field that defines the size of the sliding window.
 Checksum. The checksum is a l6-bit field used in error detection.
 Urgent pointer. This is the last required field in the header. Its value is valid only if the URG
bit in the control field is set. In this case, the sender is informing the receiver that there are
urgent data in the data portion of the segment. This pointer defines the end of urgent data
and the start of normal data.
 Options and padding. The remainder of the TCP header defines the optional fields. They
are used to convey additional information to the receiver or for alignment purposes.

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) protocols:

Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e. a transmission) and act accordingly are called
carrier sense protocols.

 Persistent and Non-persistent CSMA:

 1-persistent CSMA: The first carrier sense protocol is 1-persistent CSMA. When a
station has data to send, it first listens to the channel to see if anyone is transmitting at
that time.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes idle. When the station detects an
idle channel, it transmits a frame.

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 Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

 If a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and starts all over again.
The protocol is called 1-persistent because the station transmits with a portability of 1
whenever it finds the channel idle.

 The propagation delay has an important effect on the performance of the protocol. There
is a small chance that after a station begins sending, another station will become ready to
send and sense the channel. If the first station’s signal has not yet reached the second
one, the letter will sense an idle channel and will also begin sending, resulting in a
collision. The longer the propagation delay, the more important this effect becomes, and
the worse the performance of the protocol.

 Even if the propagation delay is zero, there will still be collisions. If two stations become
ready in the middle of a third station’s transmission, both will wait politely until the
transmission ends and then both will begin transmitting exactly simultaneously, resulting
in a collision. If they were not so impatient, there would be fewer collisions. This protocol
is far better than pure ALOHA because both stations have the decency to desist from
interfering with the third station’s frame. This will lead to a higher performance than pure
ALOHA. Exactly the same holds for slotted ALOHA.

 A second carrier sense protocol is non-persistent CSMA. In this protocol, a conscious

attempt is made to be less greedy than in the previous one. Before sending, a station
senses the channel, If no one else is sending, the station begins doing so itself.

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 Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

 However, if the channel is already in use, the station does not continually sense it for the
purpose of seizing it immediately upon detecting the end of previous transmission.

Instead, it waits a random period of time and then repeats the algorithm. Intuitively this
algorithm should lead to better channel utilization and longer delays than 1-persistent
CSMA.

 The last protocol is p-persistent CSMA. It applies to slotted channels. When a station
becomes ready to send, it senses the channel. If it is idle, it transmits with a probability of
p. With a probability q=1-p it defers until next slot. If that slot is also idle, it either transmits
or defers again, with probabilities p and q.

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 Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

This process is repeated until either the frame has been transmitted or another station
has begun transmitting. In the latter case, it acts as if there had been a collision (i.e. it
waits a random time and starts again.) If the station initially senses the channel busy, it
waits until the next slot and applies the above algorithm.

 Figure shows the throughout versus offered traffic for all three protocols, as well as pure
and slotted ALOHA.

 CSMA WITH COLLISION DETECTION:

 If two stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting simultaneously, they
will both detect the collision almost immediately.
 Rather than finish transmitting their frames, which are irretrievably garbled anyway, they
should stop transmitting as soon as the collision is detected. Quickly terminating
damaged frames saves time and bandwidth. This protocol is known as CSMA / CD
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).

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 Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

 CSMA / CD uses the conceptual model as given in figure. At the point marked t0, a
station has finished transmitting its frame. Any other station having a frame to send may
now attempt to do so. If two or more stations decide to transmit simultaneously, there will
be a collision. Collisions can be detected by looking at the power or pulse width of
received signal and comparing it to the transmitted signal.
 After station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission, waits a random period of time,
and then tries again, assuming that no other station has started transmitting in the
meantime. Therefore our model for CSMA/CD will consist of altering contention and
transmission periods, with idle periods occurring when all stations are quite.
 Suppose that two stations begin transmitting at exactly time t0. How long will it take them
to realize that there has been a collision? The answer to the question is vital to
determining the length of the contention period. The minimum time to detect the collision
is the time it takes the signal to propagate from one station to the other.

 CSMA WITH COLLISION AVOIDANCE:

 The basic idea behind CSMA / CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while
transmitting to detect a collision. When there is no collision, the station receives one

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 Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

signal: its own signal. When there is a collision, the station receives two signals: its own
signal and the signal transmitted by a second station. To distinguish between these two
cases, the received signals in these two cases must be significantly different.

 In other words, the signal from the second station needs to add a significant amount of
energy to the one created by the first station.
 In wired network, received signal has almost same energy as the sent signal because
either the length of the cable is short or there are repeaters to amplify the energy between
the sender and the receiver.
 This means that in collision the detected signal almost doubles. In a wireless network,
much of the energy is lost in transmission. The received signal has very little energy. So a
collision may add only 5 to 10 percent additional energy. This is not useful for collision
detection.

 Hence in wireless networks we need to avoid collisions as they cannot be detected.

 The station uses one of the persistence strategies. After it finds the line idle, it waits and
IFG (Inter Frame Gap) amount of time.
 It then waits for another random amount of time. After that, it sends the frame and sets a
timer. The station waits for an acknowledgement from the receiver.

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 Unit: 02 SY BCA SEM : 03 US3SEBCA06 || Data Communication & Networking

 If it receives the acknowledgement before the timer expires, the transmission is

successful. If the station does not receive an acknowledgement, it knows that something
is wrong (the frame is lost or the acknowledgement is lost).
 The station increments the value of the back off parameter, waits for a back off amount of
time, and re-senses the line again.
 CSMA/CA is used in wireless LANs.
Inter Frame Space (IFS) or Inter Frame Gap (IFG):
First, collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle.
When an idle channel is found the station does not send immediately. It waits for a time
called IFS or IFG. In case a distant station has started transmitting but its signal has not
yet reached this current station, the IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal by
the distant station to reach this station. If after the IFS time the channel is still idle, the
station can send, but it still needs to wait a time equal to the contention time.
Contention Window:
The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots. A station that is ready to
send chooses a random number of slots as wait time. The number of slots in the window
changes according to the binary exponential back off strategy. This means that it is set to
one slot the first time and then doubles each time the station cannot detect an idle
channel after the IFS time.
Acknowledgement:
There may still be a collision resulting in destroyed data. The data may be corrupted
during the transmission sometimes. The positive acknowledgement and the time out timer
can help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

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Disclaimer: The study material is compiled by MITESH M PATEL. The basic objective of
this material is to supplement teaching and discussion in the classroom in the subject.
Students are required to go for extra reading in the subject through Library books
recommended by Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar.
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