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– Basics of Computer Graphics

What is computer Graphics?
Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers with the help of
programming. Computer graphics image is made up of number of pixels. Pixel is the smallest addressable
graphical unit represented on the computer screen.

Introduction
Computer is information processing machine. User needs to communicate with computer and the
computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of communication with the user.
It displays the information in the form of graphical objects such as pictures, charts, diagram and graphs.
Graphical objects convey more information in less time and easily understandable formats for example
statically graph shown in stock exchange.
In computer graphics picture or graphics objects are presented as a collection of discrete pixels.
We can control intensity and color of pixel which decide how picture look like.
The special procedure determines which pixel will provide the best approximation to the desired picture or
graphics object this process is known as Rasterization.
The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a collection of discrete pixels is called
Scan Conversion.

Advantages of computer graphics

Computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of communication with
computer.
It provides tools for producing picture of “real-world” as well as synthetic objects such as mathematical
surfaces in 4D and of data that have no inherent geometry such as survey result.
It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible to produce animations with computer graphics.
With the use of computer graphics we can control the animation by adjusting the speed, portion of
picture in view the amount of detail shown and so on.
It provides tools called motion dynamics. In which user can move objects as well as observes as per
requirement for example walk throw made by builder to show flat interior and surrounding.
It provides facility called update dynamics. With this we can change the shape color and other properties
of object.
Now in recent development of digital signal processing and audio synthesis chip the interactive graphics
can now provide audio feedback along with the graphical feed backs.

Application of computer graphics

User interface: - Visual object which we observe on screen which communicates with user is one of the
most useful applications of the computer graphics.
Plotting of graphics and chart in industry, business, government and educational organizations drawing
like bars, pie-charts, histogram’s are very useful for quick and good decision making.
Office automation and desktop publishing: - It is used for creation and dissemination of information. It is
used in in-house creation and printing of documents which contains text, tables, graphs and other forms of
drawn or scanned images or picture.
Computer aided drafting and design: - It uses graphics to design components and system such as
automobile bodies structures of building etc.
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Simulation and animation: - Use of graphics in simulation makes mathematic models and mechanical
systems more realistic and easy to study.
Art and commerce: - There are many tools provided by graphics which allows used to make their picture
animated and attracted which are used in advertising.
Process control: - Now a day’s automation is used which is graphically displayed on the screen.
Cartography: - Computer graphics is also used to represent geographic maps, weather maps,
oceanographic charts etc.
Education and training: - Computer graphics can be used to generate models of physical, financial and
economic systems. These models can be used as educational aids.
Image processing: - It is used to process image by changing property of the image.

Display devices
Display devices are also known as output devices.
Most commonly used output device in a graphics system is a video monitor.

Cathode-ray-tubes

Fig. 1.1: - Cathode ray tube.

It is an evacuated glass tube.

An electron gun at the rear of the tube produce a beam of electrons which is directed towards the
screen of the tube by a high voltage typically 15000 to 20000 volts
Inner side screen is coated with phosphor substance which gives light when it is stroked bye electrons.
Control grid controls velocity of electrons before they hit the phosphor.
The control grid voltage determines how many electrons are actually in the electron beam. The negative
the control voltage is the fewer the electrons that pass through the grid.
Thus control grid controls Intensity of the spot where beam strikes the screen.
The focusing system concentrates the electron beam so it converges to small point when hits the
phosphor coating.
Deflection system directs beam which decides the point where beam strikes the screen.
Deflection system of the CRT consists of two pairs of parallel plates which are vertical and horizontal
deflection plates.
Voltage applied to vertical and horizontal deflection plates is control vertical and horizontal deflection
respectively.
There are two techniques used for producing images on the CRT screen:
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1. Vector scan/Random scan display.
2. Raster scan display.

Vector scan/Random scan display

CPU

I/O Port

Display
buffer (Interaction (Display
memory data) command)

Display controller CRT

Keyboard Mouse

Fig. 1.2: - Architecture of a vector display.

Vector scan display directly traces out only the desired lines on CRT.
If we want line between point p1 & p2 then we directly drive the beam deflection circuitry which focus
beam directly from point p1 to p2.
If we do not want to display line from p1 to p2 and just move then we can blank the beam as we move it.
To move the beam across the CRT, the information about both magnitude and direction is required. This
information is generated with the help of vector graphics generator.
Fig. 1.2 shows architecture of vector display. It consists of display controller, CPU, display buffer
memoryand CRT.
Display controller is connected as an I/O peripheral to the CPU.
Display buffer stores computer produced display list or display program.
The Program contains point & line plotting commands with end point co-ordinates as well as character
plotting commands.
Display controller interprets command and sends digital and point co-ordinates to a vector generator.
Vector generator then converts the digital co-ordinate value to analog voltages for beam deflection circuits
that displace an electron beam which points on the CRT’s screen.
In this technique beam is deflected from end point to end point hence this techniques is also called random
scan.
We know as beam strikes phosphors coated screen it emits light but that light decays after few
milliseconds and therefore it is necessary to repeat through the display list to refresh the screen at least 30
times per second to avoid flicker.
As display buffer is used to store display list and used to refreshing, it is also called refresh buffer.
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Raster scan display

CPU

I/O Port

(Interaction (Display
data) command

Keyboard
Display controller
Mouse

00000000000000000
00000111111100000 CRT
00000000100000000 Video controller T
00000000100000000
00000000100000000

Refresh buffer

Fig. 1.3: - Architecture of a raster display.

Fig. 1.3 shows the architecture of Raster display. It consists of display controller, CPU, video controller,
refresh buffer, keyboard, mouse and CRT.
The display image is stored in the form of 1’s and 0’s in the refresh buffer.
The video controller reads this refresh buffer and produces the actual image on screen.
It will scan one line at a time from top to bottom & then back to the top.

Horizonta
Vertical
OFF l Retrace
Retrace ON

Fig. 1.4: - Raster scan CRT.

In this method the horizontal and vertical deflection signals are generated to move the beam all over the
screen in a pattern shown in fig. 1.4.
Here beam is swept back & forth from left to the right.
When beam is moved from left to right it is ON.
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When beam is moved from right to left it is OFF and process of moving beam from right to left after
completion of row is known as Horizontal Retrace.
When beam is reach at the bottom of the screen. It is made OFF and rapidly retraced back to the top left to
start again and process of moving back to top is known as Vertical Retrace.
The screen image is maintained by repeatedly scanning the same image. This process is known as
Refreshing of Screen.
In raster scan displays a special area of memory is dedicated to graphics only. This memory is called
Frame Buffer.
Frame buffer holds set of intensity values for all the screen points.
That intensity is retrieved from frame buffer and display on screen one row at a time.
Each screen point referred as pixel or Pel (Picture Element).
Each pixel can be specified by its row and column numbers.
It can be simply black and white system or color system.
In simple black and white system each pixel is either ON or OFF, so only one bit per pixel is needed.
Additional bits are required when color and intensity variations can be displayed up to 24-bits per pixel
are included in high quality display systems.
On a black and white system with one bit per pixel the frame buffer is commonly called a Bitmap. And
for systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred as a Pixmap.

Difference between random scan and raster scan

Base of Difference Raster Scan System Random Scan System

Electron Beam The electron beam is swept across the The electron beam is directed only to the
screen, one row at a time, from top to parts of screen where a picture is to be
bottom. drawn.

Resolution Its resolution is poor because raster Its resolution is good because this system
system in contrast produces zigzag produces smooth lines drawings because
lines that are plotted as discrete point CRT beam directly follows the line path.
sets.

Picture Definition Picture definition is stored as a set of Picture definition is stored as a set of line
intensity values for all screen points, drawing instructions in a display file.
called pixels in a refresh buffer area.

Realistic Display The capability of this system to store These systems are designed for line-
intensity values for pixel makes it well drawing and can’t display realistic shaded
suited for the realistic display of scenes scenes.
contain shadow and color pattern.

Draw an Image Screen points/pixels are used to draw Mathematical functions are used to draw an
an image. image.
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Color CRT monitors
A CRT monitors displays color pictures by using a combination of phosphors that emit different colored
light.
It produces range of colors by combining the light emitted by different phosphors.
There are two basic techniques for color display:
1. Beam-penetration technique
2. Shadow-mask technique

Beam-penetration technique

Fig. 1.5: - Beam-penetration CRT

This technique is used with random scan monitors.

In this technique inside of CRT coated with two phosphor layers usually red and green. The outer layer of
red and inner layer of green phosphor.
The color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layer.
A beam of fast electron penetrates more and excites inner green layer while slow electron excites outer
red layer.
At intermediate beam speed we can produce combination of red and green lights which emit additional
two colors orange and yellow.
The beam acceleration voltage controls the speed of the electrons and hence color of pixel.
It is a low cost technique to produce color in random scan monitors.
It can display only four colors.
Quality of picture is not good compared to other techniques.

Shadow-mask technique

Fig. 1.6: - Shadow-mask CRT.

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It produces wide range of colors as compared to beam-penetration technique.
This technique is generally used in raster scan displays. Including color TV.
In this technique CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One dot for red, one for
green and one for blue light. This is commonly known as Dot Triangle.
Here in CRT there are three electron guns present, one for each color dot. And a shadow mask grid just
behind the phosphor coated screen.
The shadow mask grid consists of series of holes aligned with the phosphor dot pattern.
Three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask and when they pass
through a hole they excite a dot triangle.
In dot triangle three phosphor dots are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its
corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.
A dot triangle when activated appears as a small dot on the screen which has color of combination of
three small dots in the dot triangle.
By changing the intensity of the three electron beams we can obtain different colors in the shadow mask
CRT.

Direct-view storage tubes (DVST)

Fig. 1.7: - Direct-view storage tube.

In raster scan display we do refreshing of the screen to maintain a screen image.

DVST gives alternative method for maintaining the screen image.
DVST uses the storage grid which stores the picture information as a charge distribution just behind the
phosphor coated screen.
DVST consists two electron guns a primary gun and a flood gun.
A primary gun stores the picture pattern and the flood gun maintains the picture display.
A primary gun emits high speed electrons which strike on the storage grid to draw the picture pattern.
As electron beam strikes on the storage grid with high speed, it knocks out electrons from the storage
grid keeping the net positive charge.
The knocked out electrons are attracted towards the collector.
The net positive charge on the storage grid is nothing but the picture pattern.
The continuous low speed electrons from flood gun pass through the control grid and are attracted to
the positive charged area of the storage grid.
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The low speed electrons then penetrate the storage grid and strike the phosphor coating without affecting
the positive charge pattern on the storage grid.
During this process the collector just behind the storage grid smooth out the flow of flood electrons.

Advantage of DVST
Refreshing of CRT is not required.
Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution without flicker.
Flat screen.

Disadvantage of DVST
They do not display color and are available with single level of line intensity.
For erasing it is necessary to removal of charge on the storage grid so erasing and redrawing process
take several second.
Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.
Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it produce unpleasant flash over entire
screen.
It has poor contrast as a result of the comparatively low accelerating potential applied to the flood
electrons.
The performance of DVST is somewhat inferior to the refresh CRT.

Flat Panel Display

The term flat panel display refers to a class of video device that have reduced volume, weight & power
requirement compared to a CRT.
As flat panel display is thinner than CRTs, we can hang them on walls or wear on our wrists.
Since we can even write on some flat panel displays they will soon be available as pocket notepads.
We can separate flat panel display in two categories:
1. Emissive displays: - the emissive display or emitters are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For Ex. Plasma panel, thin film electroluminescent displays and light emitting diodes.
2. Non emissive displays: - non emissive display or non emitters use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For Ex. LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display).

Plasma Panels displays

Fig. 1.8: - Basic design of a plasma-panel display device.

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This is also called gas discharge displays.
It is constructed by filling the region between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually
includes neon.
A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal ribbon is built
into the other glass panel.
Firing voltage is applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors cause the gas at the intersection
of the two conductors to break down into glowing plasma of electrons and ions.
Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer and the firing voltages are applied to refresh the pixel
positions, 60 times per second.
Alternating current methods are used to provide faster application of firing voltages and thus brighter
displays.
Separation between pixels is provided by the electric field of conductor.
One disadvantage of plasma panels is they were strictly monochromatic device that means shows only
one color other than black like black and white.

Thin Film Electroluminescent Displays.

Fig. 1.9: - Basic design of a thin-film electro luminescent display device.

It is similar to plasma panel display but region between the glass plates is filled with phosphors such as
zinksulphide doped with magnesium instead of gas.
When sufficient voltage is applied the phosphors becomes a conductor in area of intersection of the two
electrodes.
Electrical energy is then absorbed by the manganese atoms which then release the energy as a spot of
light similar to the glowing plasma effect in plasma panel.
It requires more power than plasma panel.
In this good color and gray scale difficult to achieve.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

In this display a matrix of multi-color light emitting diode is arranged to form the pixel position in the
display. And the picture definition is stored in refresh buffer.
Similar to scan line refreshing of CRT information is read from the refresh buffer and converted to
voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern on the display.
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Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Fig. 1.10: - Light twisting shutter effect used in design of most LCD.
It is generally used in small system such as calculator and portable laptop.
This non emissive device produce picture by passing polarized light from the surrounding or from an
internal light source through liquid crystal material that can be aligned to either block or transmit the light.
The liquid crystal refreshes to fact that these compounds have crystalline arrangement of molecules then
also flows like liquid.
It consists of two glass plates each with light polarizer at right angles to each other sandwich the liquid
crystal material between the plates.
Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and column of vertical
conductors are put into the other plates.
The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.
In the ON state polarized light passing through material is twisted so that it will pass through the opposite
polarizer.
In the OFF state it will reflect back towards source.
We applied a voltage to the two intersecting conductor to align the molecules so that the light is not
twisted.
This type of flat panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD.
In active matrix LCD transistors are used at each (x, y) grid point.
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Transistor cause crystal to change their state quickly and also to control degree to which the state has
been changed.
Transistor can also serve as a memory for the state until it is changed.
So transistor make cell ON for all time giving brighter display then it would be if it had to be refresh
periodically

Advantages of LCD display

Low cost.
Low weight.
Small size
Low power consumption.

Three dimensional viewing devices

The graphics monitor which are display three dimensional scenes are devised using a technique that
reflects a CRT image from a vibrating flexible mirror.
Projected
3D image
Timing and
Control
System Vibratin
g Flexible
Mirror

CRT
Viewer

Fig. 1.11: - 3D display system uses a vibrating mirror.

Vibrating mirror changes its focal length due to vibration which is synchronized with the display of an
object on CRT.
The each point on the object is reflected from the mirror into spatial position corresponding to distance of
that point from a viewing position.
Very good example of this system is GENISCO SPACE GRAPH system, which use vibrating mirror to
project 3D objects into a 25 cm by 25 cm by 25 cm volume. This system is also capable to show 2D cross
section at different depth.

Application of 3D viewing devices

In medical to analyze data from ultra-sonography.
In geological to analyze topological and seismic data.
In designing like solid objects viewing and 3D viewing of objects.
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Stereoscopic and virtual-reality systems
Stereoscopic system

Fig. 1.12: - stereoscopic views.

Stereoscopic views does not produce three dimensional images, but it produce 3D effects by presenting
different view to each eye of an observer so that it appears to have depth.
To obtain this we first need to obtain two views of object generated from viewing direction
corresponding to each eye.
We can construct the two views as computer generated scenes with different viewing positions or we
can use stereo camera pair to photograph some object or scene.
When we see simultaneously both the view as left view with left eye and right view with right eye then
two views is merge and produce image which appears to have depth.
One way to produce stereoscopic effect is to display each of the two views with raster system on
alternate refresh cycles.
The screen is viewed through glasses with each lance design such a way that it act as a rapidly alternating
shutter that is synchronized to block out one of the views.

Virtual-reality

Fig. 1.13: - virtual reality.

Virtual reality is the system which produce images in such a way that we feel that our surrounding is
what we are set in display devices but in actually it does not.
In virtual reality user can step into a scene and interact with the environment.
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A head set containing an optical system to generate the stereoscopic views is commonly used in
conjunction with interactive input devices to locate and manipulate objects in the scene.
Sensor in the head set keeps track of the viewer’s position so that the front and back of objects can be
seen as the viewer “walks through” and interacts with the display.
Virtual reality can also be produce with stereoscopic glass and video monitor instead of head set. This
provides low cost virtual reality system.
Sensor on display screen track head position and accordingly adjust image depth.

Raster graphics systems

Simple raster graphics system

CPU System Video Monitor

Memory Controller

System Bus

I/O Devices

Fig. 1.14: - Architecture of a simple raster graphics system.

Raster graphics systems having additional processing unit like video controller or display controller.
Here frame buffer can be anywhere in the system memory and video controller access this for refresh
the screen.
In addition to video controller more processors are used as co-processors to accelerate the system in
sophisticated raster system.

Raster graphics system with a fixed portion of the system memory reserved for the
frame buffer

CPU System Frame Video Monitor

Memory Buffer Controller

System bus

I/O Devices

Fig. 1.15: - Architecture of a raster graphics system with a fixed portion of the system memory reserved for
the frame buffer.
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A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer and the video controller can directly
access that frame buffer memory.
Frame buffer location and the screen position are referred in Cartesian coordinates.
For many graphics monitors the coordinate origin is defined at the lower left screen corner.
Screen surface is then represented as the first quadrant of the two dimensional systems with positive X-
value increases as left to right and positive Y-value increases bottom to top.

Raster-graphics system with a display processor

Display Frame Video Monitor

Processor Buffer Controller
Memory

CPU Display System

Processor Memory

System Bus

I/O Devices

Fig. 1.17: - Architecture of a raster-graphics system with a display processor.

One way to designing raster system is having separate display coprocessor.

Purpose of display processor is to free CPU from graphics work.
Display processors have their own separate memory for fast operation.
Main work of display processor is digitalizing a picture definition given into a set of pixel intensity
values for store in frame buffer.
This digitalization process is scan conversion.
Display processor also performs many other functions such as generating various line styles (dashed,
dotted, or solid). Display color areas and performing some transformation for manipulating object.
It also interfaces with interactive input devices such as mouse.
For reduce memory requirements in raster scan system methods have been devised for organizing the
frame buffer as a line list and encoding the intensity information.
One way to do this is to store each scan line as a set of integer pair one number indicate number of
adjacent pixels on the scan line that are having same intensity and second stores intensity value this
technique is called run-length encoding.
A similar approach is when pixel. Intensity is changes linearly, encoded the raster as a set of rectangular
areas (cell encoding).
Disadvantages of encoding is when run length is small it requires more memory then original frame
buffer.
It also difficult for display controller to process the raster when many sort runs are involved.
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Random- scan system

CPU System Display Monitor

Memory Processor

System Bus

I/O Devices

Fig. 1.18: - Architecture of a simple random-scan system.

An application program is input & stored in the system memory along with a graphics package.
Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics package into a display file
stored in the system memory.
This display file is used by display processor to refresh the screen.
Display process goes through each command in display file. Once during every refresh cycle.
Sometimes the display processor in random scan system is also known as display processing unit or a
graphics controller.
In this system graphics platform are drawn on random scan system by directing the electron beam along
the component times of the picture.
Lines are defined by coordinate end points.
This input coordinate values are converts to X and Y deflection voltages.
A scene is then drawn one line at a time.

Graphics input devices

Keyboards
Keyboards are used as entering text strings. It is efficient devices for inputting such a non-graphics data
as picture label.
Cursor control key’s & function keys are common features on general purpose keyboards.
Many other application of key board which we are using daily used of computer graphics are
commanding & controlling through keyboard etc.

Mouse
Mouse is small size hand-held box used to position screen cursor.
Wheel or roller or optical sensor is directing pointer on the according to movement of mouse.
Three buttons are placed on the top of the mouse for signaling the execution of some operation.
Now a day’s more advance mouse is available which are very useful in graphics application for example Z
mouse.

Trackball and Spaceball

Trackball is ball that can be rotated with the finger or palm of the hand to produce cursor movement.
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Potentiometer attached to the ball, measure the amount and direction of rotation.
They are often mounted on keyboard or Z mouse.
Space ball provide six-degree of freedom i.e. three dimensional.
In space ball strain gauges measure the amount of pressure applied to the space ball to provide input for
spatial positioning and orientation as the ball is pushed or pulled in various directions.
Space balls are used in 3D positioning and selection operations in virtual reality system, modeling,
animation, CAD and other application.

Joysticks
A joy stick consists of small vertical lever mounted on a base that is used to steer the screen cursor
around.
Most joy sticks selects screen positioning according to actual movement of stick (lever).
Some joy sticks are works on pressure applied on sticks.
Sometimes joy stick mounted on keyboard or sometimes used alone.
Movement of the stick defines the movement of the cursor.
In pressure sensitive stick pressure applied on stick decides movement of the cursor. This pressure is
measured using strain gauge.
This pressure sensitive joy sticks also called as isometric joy sticks and they are non movable sticks.

Data glove
Data glove is used to grasp virtual objects.
The glow is constructed with series of sensors that detect hand and figure motions.
Electromagnetic coupling is used between transmitter and receiver antennas which used to provide
position and orientation of the hand.
Transmitter & receiver Antenna can be structured as a set of three mutually perpendicular coils forming
3D Cartesian coordinates system.
Input from the glove can be used to position or manipulate object in a virtual scene.

Digitizer
Digitizer is common device for drawing painting or interactively selecting coordinates position on an
object.
One type of digitizers is graphics tablet which input two dimensional coordinates by activating hand
cursor or stylus at selected position on a flat surface.
Stylus is flat pencil shaped device that is pointed at the position on the tablet.

Image Scanner
Image Scanner scan drawing, graph, color, & black and white photos or text and can stored for computer
processing by passing an optical scanning mechanism over the information to be stored.
Once we have internal representation of a picture we can apply transformation.
We can also apply various image processing methods to modify the picture.
For scanned text we can apply modification operation.

Touch Panels
As name suggest Touch Panels allow displaying objects or screen-position to be selected with the touch
or finger.
A typical application is selecting processing option shown in graphical icons.
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Some system such as a plasma panel are designed with touch screen
Other system can be adapted for touch input by fitting transparent touch sensing mechanism over a
screen.
Touch input can be recorded with following methods.
1. Optical methods
2. Electrical methods
3. Acoustical methods

Optical method
Optical touch panel employ a line of infrared LEDs along one vertical and one horizontal edge.
The opposite edges of the edges containing LEDs are contain light detectors.
When we touch at a particular position the line of light path breaks and according to that breaking line
coordinate values are measured.
In case two line cuts it will take average of both pixel positions.
LEDs operate at infrared frequency so it cannot be visible to user.

Electrical method
An electrical touch panel is constructed with two transparent plates separated by small distance.
One is coated with conducting material and other is coated with resistive material.
When outer plate is touch it will come into contact with internal plate.
When both plates touch it creates voltage drop across the resistive plate that is converted into coordinate
values of the selected position.

Acoustical method
In acoustical touch panel high frequency sound waves are generated in horizontal and vertical direction
across a glass plates.
When we touch the screen the waves from that line are reflected from finger.
These reflected waves reach again at transmitter position and time difference between sending and
receiving is measure and converted into coordinate values.

Light pens
Light pens are pencil-shaped device used to select positions by detecting light coming from points on the
CRT screen.
Activated light pens pointed at a spot on the screen as the electron beam lights up that spot and
generate electronic pulse that causes the coordinate position of the electron beam to be recorded.

Voice systems
It is used to accept voice command in some graphics workstations.
It is used to initiate graphics operations.
It will match input against predefined directory of words and phrases.
Dictionary is setup for a particular operator by recording his voice.
Each word is speak several times and then analyze the word and establishes a frequency pattern for that
word along with corresponding function need to be performed.
When operator speaks command it will match with predefine dictionary and perform desired action.
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Graphics software and standard
There are mainly two types of graphics software:
1. General programming package
2. Special-purpose application package

General programming package

A general programming package provides an extensive set of graphics function that can be used in high
level programming language such as C or FORTRAN.
It includes basic drawing element shape like line, curves, polygon, color of element transformation etc.
Example: - GL (Graphics Library).

Special-purpose application package

Special-purpose application package are customize for particular application which implement required
facility and provides interface so that user need not to vory about how it will work (programming). User
can simply use it by interfacing with application.
Example: - CAD, medical and business systems.

Coordinate representations
Except few all other general packages are designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate specifications.
If coordinate values for a picture are specified is some other reference frame they must be converted to
Cartesian coordinate before giving input to graphics package.
Special-purpose package may allow use of other coordinates which suits application.
In general several different Cartesian reference frames are used to construct and display scene.
We can construct shape of object with separate coordinate system called modeling coordinates or
sometimes local coordinates or master coordinates.
Once individual object shapes have been specified we can place the objects into appropriate positions
called world coordinates.
Finally the World-coordinates description of the scene is transferred to one or more output device
reference frame for display. These display coordinates system are referred to as “Device Coordinates” or
“Screen Coordinates”.
Generally a graphic system first converts the world-coordinates position to normalized device coordinates.
In the range from 0 to 1 before final conversion to specific device coordinates.
An initial modeling coordinates position ( Xmc,Ymc) in this illustration is transferred to a device
coordinates position(Xdc,Ydc) with the sequence ( Xmc,Ymc) ( Xwc,Ywc) ( Xnc,Ync) ( Xdc,Ydc).

Graphic Function
A general purpose graphics package provides user with Varity of function for creating and manipulating
pictures.
The basic building blocks for pictures are referred to as output primitives. They includes character,
string, and geometry entities such as point, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas and shapes defined with
arrays of color points.
Input functions are used for control & process the various input device such as mouse, tablet, etc.
Control operations are used to controlling and housekeeping tasks such as clearing display screen etc.
All such inbuilt function which we can use for our purpose are known as graphics function
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Software Standard
Primary goal of standardize graphics software is portability so that it can be used in any hardware
systems & avoid rewriting of software program for different system
Some of these standards are discuss below

Graphical Kernel System (GKS)

This system was adopted as a first graphics software standard by the international standard organization
(ISO) and various national standard organizations including ANSI.
GKS was originally designed as the two dimensional graphics package and then later extension was
developed for three dimensions.

PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphic Standard)

PHIGS is extension of GKS. Increased capability for object modeling, color specifications, surface
rendering, and picture manipulation are provided in PHIGS.
Extension of PHIGS called “PHIGS+” was developed to provide three dimensional surface shading
capabilities not available in PHIGS.
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives

Points and Lines

Point plotting is done by converting a single coordinate position furnished by an application program
into appropriate operations for the output device in use.
Line drawing is done by calculating intermediate positions along the line path between two specified
endpoint positions.
The output device is then directed to fill in those positions between the end points with some color.
For some device such as a pen plotter or random scan display, a straight line can be drawn smoothly
from one end point to other.
Digital devices display a straight line segment by plotting discrete points between the two endpoints.
Discrete coordinate positions along the line path are calculated from the equation of the line.
For a raster video display, the line intensity is loaded in frame buffer at the corresponding pixel positions.
Reading from the frame buffer, the video controller then plots the screen pixels.
Screen locations are referenced with integer values, so plotted positions may only approximate actual
line positions between two specified endpoints.
For example line position of (12.36, 23.87) would be converted to pixel position (12, 24).
This rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines to be displayed with a stair step appearance
(“the jaggies”), as represented in fig 2.1.

Fig. 2.1: - Stair step effect produced when line is generated as a series of pixel positions.
The stair step shape is noticeable in low resolution system, and we can improve their appearance
somewhat by displaying them on high resolution system.
More effective techniques for smoothing raster lines are based on adjusting pixel intensities along the
line paths.
For raster graphics device-level algorithms discuss here, object positions are specified directly in integer
device coordinates.
Pixel position will referenced according to scan-line number and column number which is illustrated by
following figure.

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 2.2: - Pixel positions referenced by scan-line number and column number.
To load the specified color into the frame buffer at a particular position, we will assume we have
available low-level procedure of the form 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦).
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
Similarly for retrieve the current frame buffer intensity we assume to have procedure 𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦).

Line Drawing Algorithms

The Cartesian slop-intercept equation for a straight line is “𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏” with ‘𝑚’ representing slop and
‘𝑏’ as the intercept.
The two endpoints of the line are given which are say (𝑥1, 𝑦1) and (𝑥2, 𝑦2).

Y2

y1

X1 X2

Fig. 2.3: - Line path between endpoint positions.

We can determine values for the slope m by equation:
𝑚 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)/(𝑥2 − 𝑥1)
We can determine values for the intercept b by equation:
𝑏 = 𝑦1 − 𝑚 ∗ 𝑥1
For the given interval ∆𝑥 along a line, we can compute the corresponding 𝑦 interval ∆𝑦 as:
∆𝑦 = 𝑚 ∗ ∆𝑥
Similarly for ∆𝑥:
∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦/𝑚
For line with slop |𝑚| < 1, ∆𝑥 can be set proportional to small horizontal deflection voltage and the
corresponding vertical deflection voltage is then set proportional to ∆𝑦 which is calculated from above
equation.
For line with slop |𝑚| > 1, ∆𝑦 can be set proportional to small vertical deflection voltage and the
corresponding horizontal deflection voltage is then set proportional to ∆𝑥 which is calculated from above
equation.
For line with slop 𝑚 = 1, ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 and the horizontal and vertical deflection voltages are equal.

DDA Algorithm
Digital differential analyzer (DDA) is scan conversion line drawing algorithm based on calculating either
∆𝑦 or ∆𝑥 using above equation.
We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate and find corresponding integer values nearest the
line path for the other coordinate.
Consider first a line with positive slope and slope is less than or equal to 1:
We sample at unit x interval (∆𝑥 = 1) and calculate each successive y value as follow:
𝑦= 𝑚 ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦𝑘 = 𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 1) + 𝑏
In general 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘) + 𝑏 , &
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏
Now write this equation in form:
𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 = (𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏) – (𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘) + 𝑏)
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 + 𝑚
So that it is computed fast in computer as addition is fast compare to multiplication.
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
In above equation 𝑘 takes integer values starting from 1 and increase by 1 until the final endpoint is
reached.
As 𝑚 can be any real number between 0 and 1, the calculated 𝑦 values must be rounded to the nearest
integer.
Consider a case for a line with a positive slope greater than 1:
We change the role of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that is sample at unit 𝑦 intervals (∆𝑦 = 1) and calculate each succeeding
𝑥 value as:
𝑥 = (𝑦 − 𝑏)/𝑚
𝑥1 = ((𝑦 + 1) − 𝑏)/𝑚
In general 𝑥𝑘 = ((𝑦 + 𝑘) − 𝑏)/𝑚, &
𝑥𝑘+1 = ((𝑦 + 𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏)/𝑚
Now write this equation in form:
𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘 = (((𝑦 + 𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏)/𝑚) – (((𝑦 + 𝑘) − 𝑏)/𝑚)
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1/𝑚
Above both equations are based on the assumption that lines are to be processed from left endpoint to the
right endpoint.
If we processed line from right endpoint to left endpoint than:
If ∆𝑥 = −1 equation become:
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 – 𝑚
If ∆𝑦 = −1 equation become:
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 − 1/𝑚
Above calculated equations also used to calculate pixel position along a line with negative slope.
Procedure for DDA line algorithm.
Void lineDDA (int xa, int ya, int xb, int yb)
{
int dx = xb – xa, dy = yb – ya, steps, k;
float xincrement, yincrement, x = xa, y =
ya; if (abs(dx)>abs(dy))
{
Steps = abs (dx);
}
else
{
Steps = abs (dy);
}
xincrement = dx/(float) steps;
yincrement = dy/(float) steps;

setpixel (ROUND (x), ROUND

(y)); for(k=0;k<steps;k++)
{
x +=
xincrement; y +=
yincrement;
setpixel (ROUND (x), ROUND (y));
}
}
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
Advantages of DDA algorithm
It is faster algorithm.
It is simple algorithm.

Disadvantage of DDA algorithm

Floating point arithmetic is time consuming.
Poor end point accuracy.

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm, developed by Bresenham which scan converts
line using only incremental integer calculations that can be modified to display circles and other curves.
Figure shows section of display screen where straight line segments are to be drawn.

Specified
13
line path 50

1 Specified
2 49
line path
1
1 48

1
0 47

10 11 12 13 14 15 50 51 52 53 54 55
Fig. 2.4: - Section of a display screen where a Fig. 2.5: - Section of a display screen where a
straight line segment is to be plotted, starting negative slope line segment is to be plotted,
from the pixel at column 10 on scan line 11. starting from the pixel at column 50 on scan
line 50.
The vertical axes show scan-line positions and the horizontal axes identify pixel column.
Sampling at unit 𝑥 intervals in these examples, we need to decide which of two possible pixel position is
closer to the line path at each sample step.
To illustrate bresenham’s approach, we first consider the scan-conversion process for lines with positive
slope less than 1.
Pixel positions along a line path are then determined by sampling at unit 𝑥 intervals.
Starting from left endpoint (𝑥0, 𝑦0) of a given line, we step to each successive column and plot the pixel
whose scan-line 𝑦 values is closest to the line path.
Assuming we have determined that the pixel at (𝑥𝑘, 𝑦𝑘) is to be displayed, we next need to decide which
pixel to plot in column 𝑥𝑘 + 1.
Our choices are the pixels at positions (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘) and (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 + 1).
Let’s see mathematical calculation used to decide which pixel position is light up.
We know that equation of line is:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Now for position 𝑥𝑘 + 1.
𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏
Now calculate distance bet actual line’s 𝑦 value and lower pixel as 𝑑1 and distance bet actual line’s 𝑦
value and upper pixel as 𝑑2.
𝑑1 = 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑘
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
d1 = m(xk + 1) + b − yk ......................................................................................................................... (1)
𝑑2 = (𝑦𝑘 + 1) − 𝑦
𝑑2 = (𝑦𝑘 + 1) − 𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) −
𝑏..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………(2)
Now calculate 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 from equation (1) and (2).
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = (𝑦 – 𝑦𝑘) – ((𝑦𝑘 + 1) – 𝑦)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = {𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏 − 𝑦𝑘} − {(𝑦𝑘 + 1) − 𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏}
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = {𝑚𝑥𝑘 + 𝑚 + 𝑏 − 𝑦𝑘} − {𝑦𝑘 + 1 − 𝑚𝑥𝑘 − 𝑚 − 𝑏}
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 −
1……………………………………………………………………………….……………..(3)
Now substitute 𝑚 = ∆𝑦/∆𝑥 in equation (3)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2 (∆𝑦) (𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 − 1
∆𝑥
….………………………………….………………………………………………….(4)
Now we have decision parameter 𝑝𝑘 for 𝑘𝑡ℎ step in the line algorithm is given by:
𝑝𝑘 = ∆𝑥(𝑑1 − 𝑑2)
𝑝𝑘 = ∆𝑥(2∆𝑦/∆𝑥(𝑥𝑘 + 1) – 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 – 1)
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
……………………………………………………….………………………(5)
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 𝐶 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶 = 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥) ........................................... (6)
The sign of 𝑝𝑘 is the same as the sign of 𝑑1 − 𝑑2, since ∆𝑥 > 0 for our example.
Parameter 𝑐 is constant which is independent of pixel position and will eliminate in the recursive
calculation for 𝑝𝑘.
Now if 𝑝𝑘 is negative then we plot the lower pixel otherwise we plot the upper pixel.
So successive decision parameters using incremental integer calculation as:
𝑝𝑘+1 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘+1 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘+1 + C
Now Subtract 𝑝𝑘 from 𝑝𝑘+1
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦(𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘) -2∆𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘)
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘+1 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘+1 + 𝐶 − 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 + 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 − 𝐶
But 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1, so that (𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘) = 1
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘)
Where the terms 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 is either 0 or 1, depends on the sign of parameter 𝑝𝑘.
This recursive calculation of decision parameters is performed at each integer 𝑥 position starting at the
left coordinate endpoint of the line.
The first decision parameter 𝑝0 is calculated using equation (5) as first time we need to take constant
part into account so:
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
Now 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑦0 – 𝑚𝑥0
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥(𝑦0 − 𝑚𝑥0) − ∆𝑥
Now Substitute 𝑚 = ∆𝑦/𝛥𝑥
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥(𝑦0 − (∆𝑦/∆𝑥)𝑥0) − ∆x
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑦0 − 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − ∆𝑥
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦 − ∆𝑥
Let’s see Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm for |𝑚| < 1
1. Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (𝑥0, 𝑦0).
2. Load (𝑥0, 𝑦0) into the frame buffer; that is, plot the first point.
3. Calculate constants ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, 2∆𝑦, and 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥, and obtain the starting value for the decision
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
parameter as

𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦 − ∆𝑥
4. At each 𝑥𝑘 along the line, starting at 𝑘 = 0, perform the following test: If
𝑝𝑘 < 0, the next point to plot is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘) and
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2∆𝑦
Otherwise, the next point to plot is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 + 1) and
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥
5. Repeat step-4 ∆𝑥 times.
Bresenham’s algorithm is generalized to lines with arbitrary slope by considering symmetry between the
various octants and quadrants of the 𝑥𝑦 plane.
For lines with positive slope greater than 1 we interchange the roles of the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions.
Also we can revise algorithm to draw line from right endpoint to left endpoint, both 𝑥 and 𝑦 decrease as
we step from right to left.
When 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 0 we choose either lower or upper pixel but once we choose lower than for all such case
for that line choose lower and if we choose upper the for all such case choose upper.
For the negative slope the procedure are similar except that now one coordinate decreases as the other
increases.
The special case handle separately. Horizontal line (∆𝑦 = 0), vertical line (∆𝑥 = 0) and diagonal line with
|∆𝑥| = |∆𝑦| each can be loaded directly into the frame buffer without processing them through the line
plotting algorithm.

Circle

Yc

Xc

Fig. 2.7: - Circle with center coordinates (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐) and radius 𝑟.
A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a given distance r from a center position say (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐).

Properties of Circle
The distance relationship is expressed by the Pythagorean theorem in Cartesian coordinates as:
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐)2 = 𝑟2
We could use this equation to calculate circular boundary points by incrementing 1 in 𝑥 direction in
every steps from 𝑥𝑐 – 𝑟 to 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑟 and calculate corresponding 𝑦 values at each position as:
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐)2 = 𝑟2
(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐)2 = 𝑟2 − (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐)2
(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐) = ±√𝑟2 − (𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥)2

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 ± √𝑟2 − (𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥)2

But this is not best method for generating a circle because it requires more number of calculations which
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
take more time to execute.
And also spacing between the plotted pixel positions is not uniform as shown in figure below.

Fig. 2.8: - Positive half of circle showing non uniform spacing bet calculated pixel positions.

We can adjust spacing by stepping through 𝑦 values and calculating 𝑥 values whenever the absolute
value of the slop of the circle is greater than 1. But it will increases computation processing requirement.
Another way to eliminate the non-uniform spacing is to draw circle using polar coordinates ‘𝑟’ and ‘ ’.
Calculating circle boundary using polar equation is given by pair of equations which is as follows.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑟 cos
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑟 sin
When display is produce using these equations using fixed angular step size circle is plotted with uniform
spacing.
The step size ‘ ’ is chosen according to application and display device.
For a more continuous boundary on a raster display we can set the step size at 1/𝑟. This plot pixel position
that are approximately one unit apart.
Computation can be reduced by considering symmetry city property of circles. The shape of circle is
similar in each quadrant.
We can obtain pixel position in second quadrant from first quadrant using reflection about 𝑦 axis and
similarly for third and fourth quadrant from second and first respectively using reflection about 𝑥 axis.
We can take one step further and note that there is also symmetry between octants. Circle sections in
adjacent octant within one quadrant are symmetric with respect to the 450 line dividing the two octants.
This symmetry condition is shown in figure below where point (𝑥, 𝑦) on one circle sector is mapped in
other seven sector of circle.

(-Y, X) (Y, X)

45O
(-X, Y)
(X, Y)

(-X, -Y) (X, -Y)

(-Y, -X) (Y, -X)

Fig. 2.9: - symmetry of circle.
Taking advantage of this symmetry property of circle we can generate all pixel position on boundary of
circle by calculating only one sector from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Determining pixel position along circumference of circle using any of two equations shown above still
required large computation.
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
More efficient circle algorithm are based on incremental calculation of decision parameters, as in the
Bresenham line algorithm.
Bresenham’s line algorithm can be adapted to circle generation by setting decision parameter for finding
closest pixel to the circumference at each sampling step.
The Cartesian coordinate circle equation is nonlinear so that square root evaluations would be required to
compute pixel distance from circular path.
Bresenham’s circle algorithm avoids these square root calculation by comparing the square of the pixel
separation distance.
A method for direct distance comparison to test the midpoint between two pixels to determine if this
midpoint is inside or outside the circle boundary.
This method is easily applied to other conics also.
Midpoint approach generates same pixel position as generated by bresenham’s circle algorithm.
The error involve in locating pixel positions along any conic section using midpoint test is limited to one-
half the pixel separation.

Midpoint Circle Algorithm

Algorithm for Midpoint Circle Generation
1. Input radius 𝑟 and circle center (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐), and obtain the first point on the circumference of a circle
centered on the origin as
(𝑥0, 𝑦0) = (0, 𝑟)
2. calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as
𝑝 =5−𝑟 0
4
3. At each 𝑥𝑘 position, starting at 𝑘 = 0, perform the following test:
If 𝑝𝑘 < 0, the next point along the circle centered on (0, 0) is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘) &
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2𝑥𝑘+1 + 1
Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 − 1) &
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2𝑥𝑘+1 + 1 − 2𝑦𝑘+1
Where 2𝑥𝑘+1 = 2𝑥𝑘 + 2, & 2𝑦𝑘+1 = 2𝑦𝑘 − 2.
4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (𝑥, 𝑦) onto the circular path centered on (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐) and plot the
coordinate values:
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑐
6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 until 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦.
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐
𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑐
Filled-Area Primitives
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
In practical we often use polygon which are filled with some color or pattern inside it.
There are two basic approaches to area filling on raster systems.
One way to fill an area is to determine the overlap intervals for scan line that cross the area.
Another method is to fill the area is to start from a given interior position and paint out wards from this
point until we encounter boundary.

Scan-Line Polygon Fill Algorithm

Figure below shows the procedure for scan-line filling algorithm.

Fig. 2.17: - Interior pixels along a scan line passing through a polygon area.
For each scan-line crossing a polygon, the algorithm locates the intersection points are of scan line with
the polygon edges.
This intersection points are stored from left to right.
Frame buffer positions between each pair of intersection point are set to specified fill color.
Some scan line intersects at vertex position they are required special handling.
For vertex we must look at the other endpoints of the two line segments of the polygon which meet at
this vertex.
If these points lie on the same (up or down) side of the scan line, then that point is counts as two
intersection points.
If they lie on opposite sides of the scan line, then the point is counted as single intersection.
This is illustrated in figure below

Fig. 2.18: - Intersection points along the scan line that intersect polygon vertices.
As shown in the Fig. 2.18, each scan line intersects the vertex or vertices of the polygon. For scan line 1,
the other end points (B and D) of the two line segments of the polygon lie on the same side of the scan
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
line, hence there are two intersections resulting two pairs: 1 -2 and 3 - 4. Intersections points 2 and 3 are
actually same Points. For scan line 2 the other endpoints (D and F) of the two line segments of the
Polygon lie on the opposite sides of the scan line, hence there is a single intersection resulting two pairs: l
- 2 and 3 - 4. For scan line 3, two vertices are the intersection points"
For vertex F the other end points E and G of the two line segments of the polygon lie on the same side of
the scan line whereas for vertex H, the other endpoints G and I of the two line segments of the polygon lie
on the opposite side of the scan line. Therefore, at vertex F there are two intersections and at vertex H
there is only one intersection. This results two pairs: 1 - 2 and 3 - 4 and points 2 and 3 are actually same
points.
Coherence methods often involve incremental calculations applied along a single scan line or between
successive scan lines.
In determining edge intersections, we can set up incremental coordinate calculations along any edge by
exploiting the fact that the slope of the edge is constant from one scan line to the next.
Figure below shows three successive scan-lines crossing the left edge of polygon.

Fig. 2.18: - adjacent scan line intersects with polygon edge.

For above figure we can write slope equation for polygon boundary as follows.
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑘
𝑚 = 𝑘+1
𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘
Since change in 𝑦 coordinates between the two scan lines is simply
𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 = 1
So slope equation can be modified as follows
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑘
𝑚 = 𝑘+1
𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘
1
𝑚=
𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘
1
𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘 =
𝑚
1
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 +
𝑚
Each successive 𝑥 intercept can thus be calculated by adding the inverse of the slope and rounding to
the nearest integer.
For parallel execution of this algorithm we assign each scan line to separate processor in that case
instead of using previous 𝑥 values for calculation we use initial 𝑥 values by using equation as.
𝑘
𝑥𝑘 = 𝑥0 +
𝑚
Now if we put 𝑚 = ∆𝑦 in incremental calculation equation 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1 then we obtain equation as.
∆𝑥 𝑚
∆𝑥
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 +
∆
𝑦
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
Using this equation we can perform integer evaluation of 𝑥 intercept by initializing a counter to 0, then
incrementing counter by the value of ∆𝑥 each time we move up to a new scan line.
When the counter value becomes equal to or greater than ∆𝑦, we increment the current 𝑥 intersection
value by 1 and decrease the counter by the value ∆𝑦.
This procedure is seen by following figure.

Line with slope 7/3

Decerement 0
4
Decerement 1
5
Decerement 2
6
3
Y0 0 Y0

X0 X0

∆𝑥
Fig. 2.19: - line with slope 7/3 and its integer calculation using equation 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + ∆𝑦.
Steps for above procedure
1. Suppose m = 7/3
2. Initially, set counter to 0, and increment to 3 (which is 𝛥𝑥).
3. When move to next scan line, increment counter by adding ∆𝑥
4. When counter is equal or greater than 7 (which is 𝛥𝑦), increment the x-intercept (in other words, the 𝑥-
intercept for this scan line is one more than the previous scan line), and decrement counter by 7(which is
∆𝑦).
To efficiently perform a polygon fill, we can first store the polygon boundary in a sorted edge table that
contains all the information necessary to process the scan lines efficiently.
We use bucket sort to store the edge sorted on the smallest 𝑦 value of each edge in the correct scan line
positions.
Only the non-horizontal edges are entered into the sorted edge table.
Figure below shows one example of storing edge table.
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
Scan-
Line
Number

Yc Yb Xc 1/mcb
B

Yd Yc Xd 1/mdb Ye Xd 1/mde

C Scan Line Yc
Ya Yb Xc 1/mcb Yb Xa 1/mab
C’ E .
Scan Line .
Yd
.
1
Scan Line Ya D
0
A

Fig. 2.20: - A polygon and its sorted edge table.

Each entry in the table for a particular scan line contains the maximum 𝑦 values for that edges, the 𝑥
intercept value for edge, and the inverse slope of the edge.
For each scan line the edges are in sorted order from left to right.
Than we process the scan line from the bottom to top for whole polygon and produce active edge list for
each scan line crossing the polygon boundaries.
The active edge list for a scan line contains all edges crossed by that line, with iterative coherence
calculation used to obtain the edge intersections.

Inside-Outside Tests
In area filling and other graphics operation often required to find particular point is inside or outside the
polygon.
For finding which region is inside or which region is outside most graphics package use either odd even
rule or the nonzero winding number rule.

Odd Even Rule

It is also called the odd parity rule or even odd rule.
By conceptually drawing a line from any position 𝑝 to a distant point outside the coordinate extents of the
object and counting the number of edges crossing by this line is odd, than 𝑝 is an interior point. Otherwise
𝑝 is exterior point.
To obtain accurate edge count we must sure that line selected is does not pass from any vertices.
This is shown in figure 2.21(a).
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives

Fig. 2.21: - Identifying interior and exterior region for a self-intersecting polygon.

Nonzero Winding Number Rule

This method counts the number of times the polygon edges wind around a particular point in the
counterclockwise direction. This count is called the winding number, and the interior points of a two-
dimensional object are defined to be those that have a nonzero value for the winding number.
We apply this rule by initializing winding number with 0 and then draw a line for any point 𝑝 to distant
point beyond the coordinate extents of the object.
The line we choose must not pass through vertices.
Then we move along that line we find number of intersecting edges and we add 1 to winding number if
edge cross our line from right to left and subtract 1 from winding number if edges cross from left to right.
The final value of winding number is nonzero then the point is interior and if winding number is zero the
point is exterior.
This is shown in figure 2.21(b).
One way to determine directional edge crossing is to take the vector cross product of a vector 𝑈 along the
line from 𝑝 to distant point with the edge vector 𝐸 for each edge that crosses the line.
If 𝑧 component of the cross product𝑈 × 𝐸 for a particular edge is positive that edge is crosses from right to
left and we add 1 to winding number otherwise the edge is crossing from left to right and we subtract 1
from winding number.

Comparison between Odd Even Rule and Nonzero Winding Rule

For standard polygons and simple object both rule gives same result but for more complicated shape both
rule gives different result which is illustrated in figure 2.21.

Scan-Line Fill of Curved Boundary Areas

Scan-line fill of region with curved boundary is more time consuming as intersection calculation now
involves nonlinear boundaries.
For simple curve such as circle or ellipse scan line fill process is straight forward process.
We calculate the two scan line intersection on opposite side of the curve.
This is same as generating pixel position along the curve boundary using standard equation of curve.
Then we fill the color between two boundary intersections.
Symmetry property is used to reduce the calculation.
Similar method can be used for fill the curve section.
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
Boundary Fill Algorithm/ Edge Fill Algorithm
In this method, edges of the polygons are drawn. Then starting with some seed, any point inside the
polygon we examine the neighbouring pixels to check whether the boundary pixel is reached.
If boundary pixels are not reached, pixels are highlighted and the process is continued until boundary
pixels are reached.
Boundary defined regions may be either 4-cormected or 8-connected. as shown in the Figure below

(a) Four connected region (b) Eight connected region

Fig. 2.22: - Neighbor pixel connected to one pixel.

If a region is 4-connected, then every pixel in the region may be reached by a combination of moves in
only four directions: left, right, up and down.
For an 8-connected region every pixel in the region may be reached by a combination of moves in the
two horizontal, two vertical, and four diagonal directions.
In some cases, an 8-connected algorithm is more accurate than the 4-connected algorithm. This is
illustrated in Figure below. Here, a 4-connected algorithm produces the partial fill.

Seed

Fig. 2.23: - partial filling resulted due to using 4-connected algorithm.

The following procedure illustrates the recursive method for filling a 4-connected region with color
specified in parameter fill color (f-color) up to a boundary color specified with parameter boundary color
(b-color).
Procedure :
boundary-fill4(x, y, f-color, b-color)
{
if(getpixel (x,y) ! = b-color&&gepixel (x, y) ! = f-color)
{
putpixel (x, y, f-color)
boundary-fill4(x + 1, y, f-color, b-color);
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives
boundary-fill4(x, y + 1, f-color, b-
color); boundary-fill4(x - 1, y, f-color,
b-color); boundary-fill4(x, y - l, f-color,
b-color);
}
}
Note: 'getpixel' function gives the color of .specified pixel and 'putpixel' function draws the pixel with
specified color.
Same procedure can be modified according to 8 connected region algorithm by including four additional
statements to test diagonal positions, such as (𝑥 + 1, 𝑦 + 1).
This procedure requires considerable stacking of neighbouring points more, efficient methods are
generally employed.
This method fill horizontal pixel spans across scan lines, instead of proceeding to 4 connected or 8
connected neighbouring points.
Then we need only stack a beginning position for each horizontal pixel span, instead of stacking all
unprocessed neighbouring positions around the current position.
Starting from the initial interior point with this method, we first fill in the contiguous span of pixels on
this starting scan line.
Then we locate and stack starting positions for spans on the adjacent scan lines, where spans are defined as
the contiguous horizontal string of positions bounded by pixels displayed in the area border color.
At each subsequent step, we unstack the next start position and repeat the process.
An example of how pixel spans could be filled using this approach is illustrated for the 4-connected fill
region in Figure below.

(a) 2
1
2
1

3
(b)
1
3

5 6 6
4 5
(c)
1
4

1
 Unit-3 – Graphics Primitives

4
(d) 5
1
4

Fig. 2.24: - Boundary fill across pixel spans for a 4-connected area.

Flood-Fill Algorithm
Sometimes it is required to fill in an area that is not defined within a single color boundary.
In such cases we can fill areas by replacing a specified interior color instead of searching for a boundary
color.
This approach is called a flood-fill algorithm. Like boundary fill algorithm, here we start with some seed
and examine the neighbouring pixels.
However, here pixels are checked for a specified interior color instead of boundary color and they are
replaced by new color.
Using either a 4-connected or 8-connected approach, we can step through pixel positions until all interior
point have been filled.
The following procedure illustrates the recursive method for filling 4-connected region using flood-fill
algorithm.
Procedure :
flood-fill4(x, y, new-color, old-color)
{
if(getpixel (x,y) = = old-color)
{
putpixel (x, y, new-color)
flood-fill4 (x + 1, y, new-color, old -
color); flood-fill4 (x, y + 1, new -color,
old -color); flood-fill4 (x - 1, y, new -
color, old -color); flood-fill4 (x, y - l, new
-color, old-color);
}
}
Note: 'getpixel' function gives the color of .specified pixel and 'putpixel' function draws the pixel with
specified color.
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
Transformation
Changing Position, shape, size, or orientation of an object on display is known as transformation.

Basic Transformation
Basic transformation includes three transformations Translation, Rotation, and Scaling.
These three transformations are known as basic transformation because with combination of these
three transformations we can obtain any transformation.

Translation

(𝒙′, 𝒚′)

𝒕𝒚

(𝒙, 𝒚)

𝒕𝒙

Fig. 3.1: - Translation.

It is a transformation that used to reposition the object along the straight line path from one coordinate
location to another.
It is rigid body transformation so we need to translate whole object.
We translate two dimensional point by adding translation distance 𝒕𝒙 and 𝒕𝒚 to the original coordinate
position (𝒙, 𝒚) to move at new position (𝒙′, 𝒚′) as:
𝒙 ′ = 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒙 & 𝒚 ′ = 𝒚 + 𝒕𝒚
Translation distance pair (𝒕𝒙,𝒕𝒚) is called a Translation Vector or Shift Vector.
We can represent it into single matrix equation in column vector as;
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
𝒙′ 𝒙 𝒕𝒙
[𝒚′] = [𝒚] + [𝒕 ]
𝒚
We can also represent it in row vector form as:
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
[𝒙′ 𝒚′] = [𝒙 𝒚] + [𝒕𝒙 𝒕𝒚]
Since column vector representation is standard mathematical notation and since many graphics package
like GKS and PHIGS uses column vector we will also follow column vector representation.
Example: - Translate the triangle [A (10, 10), B (15, 15), C (20, 10)] 2 unit in x direction and 1 unit in
ydirection.
We know that
𝑃′ = 𝑃 + 𝑇
𝑡𝑥
𝑃′ = [𝑃] + [ ]
𝑡𝑦
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
For point (10, 10)
10 2
𝐴′ = [ ] + [ ]
10 1
′ 12
𝐴 =[ ]
11
For point (15, 15)
15 2
𝐵′ = [ ] + [ ]
15 1
17
𝐵′ = [ ]
16
For point (10, 10)
20 2
𝐶′ = [ ] + [ ]
10 1
22
𝐶′ = [ ]
11
Final coordinates after translation are [A’ (12, 11), B’ (17, 16), C’ (22, 11)].

Rotation
It is a transformation that used to reposition the object along the circular path in the XY - plane.
To generate a rotation we specify a rotation angle 𝜽 and the position of the Rotation Point (Pivot
Point) (𝒙𝒓,𝒚𝒓) about which the object is to be rotated.
Positive value of rotation angle defines counter clockwise rotation and negative value of rotation angle
defines clockwise rotation.
We first find the equation of rotation when pivot point is at coordinate origin(𝟎, 𝟎).

(𝒙′, 𝒚′)

(𝒙, 𝒚)
𝜽

Fig. 3.2: - Rotation.

From figure we can write.
𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
and
𝒙′ = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽 + ∅) = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒚′ = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅ + 𝜽) = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Now replace 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ with 𝒙 and 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ with 𝒚 in above equation.
𝒙′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
We can write it in the form of column vector matrix equation as;
𝑷′ = 𝑹 ∙ 𝑷
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
𝒙′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒙
= ∙
𝒚′ [ ] [ ] [ 𝒚]
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Rotation about arbitrary point is illustrated in below figure.

(𝒙′, 𝒚′)

(𝒙, 𝒚)
𝜽

∅
(𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓)

Fig. 3.3: - Rotation about pivot point.

Transformation equation for rotation of a point about pivot point (𝒙𝒓,𝒚𝒓) is:
𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒓 + (𝒙 − 𝒙𝒓) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − (𝒚 − 𝒚𝒓) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒓 + (𝒙 − 𝒙𝒓) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝒓) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
These equations are differing from rotation about origin and its matrix representation is also different.
Its matrix equation can be obtained by simple method that we will discuss later in this chapter.
Rotation is also rigid body transformation so we need to rotate each point of object.
Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle [A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by
90o clockwise about the origin.
As rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90°.
𝑃′ = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑃
cos(−90) − sin(−90) 5 8 8
𝑃′ = [ ][ ]
sin(−90) cos(−90) 4 3 8
′ 0 1 5 8 8
𝑃 =[ ][ ]
−1 0 4 3 8
4 3 8
𝑃′ = [ ]
−5 −8 −8
Final coordinates after rotation are [A’ (4, -5), B’ (3, -8), C’ (8, -8)].

Scaling

Fig. 3.4: - Scaling.

 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
It is a transformation that used to alter the size of an object.
This operation is carried out by multiplying coordinate value (𝒙, 𝒚) with scaling factor (𝒔𝒙, 𝒔𝒚)
respectively.
So equation for scaling is given by:
𝒙′ = 𝒙 ∙ 𝒔 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝒚 ∙ 𝒔 𝒚
These equation can be represented in column vector matrix equation as:
𝑷′ = 𝑺 ∙ 𝑷
′ 𝒙
[ 𝒙 ] = [𝒔𝒙 𝟎 ∙
[ ]
𝒚′ 𝟎 𝒔 𝒚] 𝒚
 Any positive value can be assigned to(𝒔𝒙, 𝒔𝒚).
 Values less than 1 reduce the size while values greater than 1 enlarge the size of object, and object
remains unchanged when values of both factor is 1.
 Same values of 𝒔𝒙 and 𝒔𝒚 will produce Uniform Scaling. And different values of 𝒔𝒙 and 𝒔𝒚 will produce
Differential Scaling.
 Objects transformed with above equation are both scale and repositioned.
 Scaling factor with value less than 1 will move object closer to origin, while scaling factor with value
greater than 1 will move object away from origin.
 We can control the position of object after scaling by keeping one position fixed called Fix point (𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇)
that point will remain unchanged after the scaling transformation.

Fixed Point

Fig. 3.5: - Fixed point scaling.

 Equation for scaling with fixed point position as (𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) is:
𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒇 + (𝒙 − 𝒙𝒇)𝒔𝒙 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒇 + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝒇)𝒔𝒚
𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒇 + 𝒙𝒔𝒙 − 𝒙𝒇𝒔𝒙 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒇 + 𝒚𝒔𝒚 − 𝒚𝒇𝒔𝒚
𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒔𝒙 + 𝒙𝒇(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒙) 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒔𝒚 + 𝒚𝒇(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒚)
 Matrix equation for the same will discuss in later section.
 Polygons are scaled by applying scaling at coordinates and redrawing while other body like circle and
ellipse will scale using its defining parameters. For example ellipse will scale using its semi major axis,
semi minor axis and center point scaling and redrawing at that position.
 Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at (2, 2) and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the
transformation which makes its size half.
As we want size half so value of scale factor are 𝑠𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑠𝑦 = 0.5 and Coordinates of square are [A (2,
2), B (6, 2), C (6, 6), D (2, 6)].
𝑃′ = 𝑆 ∙ 𝑃
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
𝑠𝑥 0 2 6 6 2
𝑃′ = [ ][ ]
0 𝑠𝑦 2 2 6 6
′
𝑃 =[ 0.5 0 ] [2 6 6 2]
0 0.5 2 2 6 6
𝑃′ = [1 3 3 1]
1 1 3 3
 Final coordinate after scaling are [A’ (1, 1), B’ (3, 1), C’ (3, 3), D’ (1, 3)].

Matrix Representation and homogeneous coordinates

 Many graphics application involves sequence of geometric transformations.
 For example in design and picture construction application we perform Translation, Rotation, and scaling
to fit the picture components into their proper positions.
 For efficient processing we will reformulate transformation sequences.
 We have matrix representation of basic transformation and we can express it in the general matrix form
as:
𝑷′ = 𝑴 𝟏 ∙ 𝑷 + 𝑴 𝟐
Where 𝑷 and 𝑷′ are initial and final point position, 𝑴𝟏 contains rotation and scaling terms and 𝑴𝟐
contains translation al terms associated with pivot point, fixed point and reposition.
 For efficient utilization we must calculate all sequence of transformation in one step and for that reason
we reformulate above equation to eliminate the matrix addition associated with translation terms in matrix
𝑴𝟐 .
 We can combine that thing by expanding 2X2 matrix representation into 3X3 matrices.
 It will allows us to convert all transformation into matrix multiplication but we need to represent vertex
position (𝒙, 𝒚) with homogeneous coordinate triple (𝒙𝒉, 𝒚𝒉, 𝒉) Where 𝒙 = 𝒙𝒉 , 𝒚 = 𝒚𝒉 thus we can also
𝒉 𝒉
write triple as (𝒉 ∙ 𝒙, 𝒉 ∙ 𝒚, 𝒉).
 For two dimensional geometric transformation we can take value of 𝒉 is any positive number so we can
get infinite homogeneous representation for coordinate value (𝒙, 𝒚).
 But convenient choice is set 𝒉 = 𝟏 as it is multiplicative identity, than (𝒙, 𝒚) is represented as (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝟏).
 Expressing coordinates in homogeneous coordinates form allows us to represent all geometric
transformation equations as matrix multiplication.
 Let’s see each representation with 𝒉 = 𝟏
Translation

𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒕 𝑷
,𝒕
𝒙 𝒚)∙
𝒙′ 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙 𝒙
[𝒚′] = [𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚] [𝒚]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
NOTE: - Inverse of translation matrix is obtain by putting −𝒕𝒙 & − 𝒕𝒚 instead of 𝒕𝒙 & 𝒕𝒚.
Rotation

𝑷 ′ = 𝑹 (𝜽 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒙
′
[𝒚 ] = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎] [𝒚]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
NOTE: - Inverse of rotation matrix is obtained by replacing 𝜽 by −𝜽.
Scaling

𝑷′ = 𝑺(𝒔𝒙,𝒔𝒚) ∙ 𝑷
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
𝒙′ 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙
[𝒚′] = [ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎] [𝒚]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
& 𝟏 respectively.
NOTE: - Inverse of scaling matrix is obtained by replacing 𝒔𝒙 & 𝒔𝒚 by 𝟏
𝒙 𝒔 𝒔𝒚

Composite Transformation
 We can set up a matrix for any sequence of transformations as a composite transformation matrix by
calculating the matrix product of individual transformation.
 For column matrix representation of coordinate positions, we form composite transformations by
multiplying matrices in order from right to left.

Translations
 Two successive translations are performed as:
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟐, 𝒕𝒚𝟐) ∙ {𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏, 𝒕𝒚𝟏) ∙ 𝑷}
𝑷′ = {𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟐, 𝒕𝒚𝟐) ∙ 𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏, 𝒕𝒚𝟏)} ∙ 𝑷
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏
𝑷′ = [𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟐] [𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏 + 𝒕𝒙𝟐
𝑷′ = [𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏 + 𝒕𝒚𝟐] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏 + 𝒕𝒙𝟐, 𝒕𝒚𝟏 + 𝒕𝒚𝟐) ∙ 𝑷}
Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point coordinate respectively.
 This concept can be extended for any number of successive translations.
Example: Obtain the final coordinates after two translations on point 𝑝(2,3) with translation vector
(4, 3) and (−1, 2) respectively.

𝑃′ = 𝑇(𝑡𝑥1 + 𝑡𝑥2, 𝑡𝑦1 + 𝑡𝑦2) ∙ 𝑃

1 0 𝑡𝑥1 + 𝑡𝑥 2 1 0 4 + (−1) 2
𝑃′ = [0 1 𝑡𝑦1 + 𝑡𝑦2] ∙ 𝑃 = [0 1 3 + 2 ] ∙ [3]
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 3 2 5
′
𝑃 = [0 1 5] ∙ [3] = [8]
0 0 1 1 1

Final Coordinates after translations are 𝑝,(5, 8).

Rotations
 Two successive Rotations are performed as:
𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟐) ∙ {𝑹(𝜽𝟏) ∙ 𝑷}
𝑷′ = {𝑹(𝜽𝟐) ∙ 𝑹(𝜽𝟏)} ∙ 𝑷
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
𝑷′ = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝟎] [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
𝑷′ = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐) −𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐) 𝟎
𝑷′ = [𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐) 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐) ∙ 𝑷
Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point coordinate respectively.
 This concept can be extended for any number of successive rotations.
Example: Obtain the final coordinates after two rotations on point 𝑝(6,9) with rotation angles are 30𝑜 and
60𝑜 respectively.
𝑃′ = 𝑅(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) ∙ 𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) 0
𝑃′ = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) 0] ∙ 𝑃
0
0 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠(30 + 60) −𝑠𝑖𝑛(30 + 60) 0
𝑃′ = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(30 + 60) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30 + 60) 0] ∙ 𝑃
0
0 1
0 −1 0 6 −9
𝑃′ = [1 0 0] ∙ [9] = [ 6 ]
0 0 1 1 1
Final Coordinates after rotations are 𝑝,(−9, 6).

Scaling
 Two successive scaling are performed as:
𝑷′ = 𝑺(𝒔𝒙𝟐, 𝒔𝒚𝟐) ∙ {𝑺(𝒔𝒙𝟏, 𝒔𝒚𝟏) ∙ 𝑷}
𝑷′ = {𝑺(𝒔𝒙𝟐, 𝒔𝒚𝟐) ∙ 𝑺(𝒔𝒙𝟏, 𝒔𝒚𝟏)} ∙ 𝑷
𝒔𝒙𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝒔𝒙𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
′
𝑷 =[ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟐 𝟎] [ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟏 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝒙𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒙𝟐 𝟎 𝟎
𝑷′ = [ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒚𝟐 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
′
𝑷 = 𝑺(𝒔𝒙𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒙𝟐, 𝒔𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒚𝟐) ∙ 𝑷
Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point coordinate respectively.
 This concept can be extended for any number of successive scaling.
Example: Obtain the final coordinates after two scaling on line 𝑝𝑞 [𝑝(2,2), 𝑞(8, 8)] with scaling factors are
(2, 2) and (3, 3) respectively.

𝑃′ = 𝑆(𝑠𝑥1 ∙ 𝑠𝑥2, 𝑠𝑦1 ∙ 𝑠𝑦2) ∙ 𝑃

𝑠 𝑥1 ∙ 𝑠 𝑥 2 0 0 2∙3 0 0
′
𝑃 =[ 0 𝑠𝑦1 ∙ 𝑠𝑦2 0] ∙ 𝑃 = [ 0 2∙3 0] ∙ 𝑃
0 0 1 0 0 1
6 0 0 2 8 12 48
′
𝑃 = [0 6 0] ∙ [2 8] = [12 48]
0 0 1 1 1 1 1

Final Coordinates after rotations are 𝑝,(12, 12) and 𝑞,(48, 48).

General Pivot-Point Rotation

 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing

(𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓) (𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Original Translation of Object Rotation Translation of Object so
Position of so that Pivot Point about that Pivot Point is Return
Object and (𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓) is at Origin. Origin. to Position (𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓) .
Pivot Point.

Fig. 3.6: - General pivot point rotation.

For rotating object about arbitrary point called pivot point we need to apply following sequence of
transformation.
1. Translate the object so that the pivot-point coincides with the coordinate origin.
2. Rotate the object about the coordinate origin with specified angle.
3. Translate the object so that the pivot-point is returned to its original position (i.e. Inverse of step-1).
Let’s find matrix equation for this
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓) ∙ [𝑹(𝜽) ∙ {𝑻(−𝒙𝒓, −𝒚𝒓) ∙ 𝑷}]
𝑷′ = {𝑻(𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓) ∙ 𝑹(𝜽) ∙ 𝑻(−𝒙𝒓, −𝒚𝒓)} ∙ 𝑷
𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝒙𝒓
′
𝑷 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝒚𝒓] [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎] [𝟎 𝟏 −𝒚𝒓] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒙𝒓(𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) + 𝒚𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑷′ = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚𝒓(𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) − 𝒙𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓𝜽) ∙ 𝑷
Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point coordinate respectively and (𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓) are the
coordinates of pivot-point.
Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle [A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by
90o clockwise about the centroid.
Pivot point is centroid of the triangle so:
5+8+8
𝑥 = =7, 𝑦 4+3+8
𝑟 𝑟 = =5
3 3
As′ rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90°.
𝑃 = 𝑅(𝑥 , 𝑦 ,𝜃) ∙ 𝑃
𝑟 𝑟
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑥𝑟(1 − cos 𝜃) + 𝑦𝑟 sin 𝜃 5 8 8
𝑃′ = [sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑦𝑟(1 − cos 𝜃) − 𝑥𝑟 sin 𝜃] [4 3 8]
0 0 1 1 1 1
cos(−90) − sin(−90) 7(1 − cos(−90)) + 5 sin(−90) 5 8 8
𝑃′ = [sin(−90) cos(−90) 5(1 − cos(−90)) − 7 sin(−90)] [4 3 8]
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 7(1 − 0) − 5(1) 5 8 8
𝑃′ = [−1 0 5(1 − 0) + 7(1)] [4 3 8]
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 5 8 8
𝑃′ = [−1 0 12] [4 3 8]
0 0 1 1 1 1
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
11 13 18
𝑃′ = [ 7 4 4]
1 1 1
Final coordinates after rotation are [A’ (11, 7), B’ (13, 4), C’ (18, 4)].

General Fixed-Point Scaling

(𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) (𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇)

(c) (d)
(a) (b) Scale Object Translate Object so that
Original Translate Object so with Respect to Fixed Point is Return to
Position of that Fixed Point Origin Position (𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) .
Object and (𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) is at Origin
Fixed Point

Fig. 3.7: - General fixed point scaling.

For scaling object with position of one point called fixed point will remains same, we need to apply
following sequence of transformation.
1. Translate the object so that the fixed-point coincides with the coordinate origin.
2. Scale the object with respect to the coordinate origin with specified scale factors.
3. Translate the object so that the fixed-point is returned to its original position (i.e. Inverse of step-1).
Let’s find matrix equation for this
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) ∙ [𝑺(𝒔𝒙, 𝒔𝒚) ∙ {𝑻(−𝒙𝒇, −𝒚𝒇) ∙ 𝑷}]
𝑷′ = {𝑻(𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) ∙ 𝑺(𝒔𝒙, 𝒔𝒚) ∙ 𝑻(−𝒙𝒇, −𝒚𝒇)} ∙ 𝑷
𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝒇 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝒙𝒇
′
𝑷 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝒚𝒇] [ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎] [𝟎 𝟏 −𝒚𝒇] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝒙𝒇(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒙)
𝑷′ = [ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝒚𝒇(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒚)] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
′
𝑷 = 𝑺(𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇, 𝒔𝒙, 𝒔𝒚) ∙ 𝑷
Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point coordinate respectively and (𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇) are the
coordinates of fixed-point.
Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at (2, 2) and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the
transformation which makes its size half such that its center remains same.
Fixed point is center of square so:
6−2
𝑥 =2+ , 𝑦 6−2
𝑓 𝑓 = 2+
2 2
As we want size half so value of scale factor are 𝑠𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑠𝑦 = 0.5 and Coordinates of square are [A (2,
2), B (6, 2), C (6, 6), D (2, 6)].
𝑃′ = 𝑆(𝑥𝑓, 𝑦𝑓, 𝑠𝑥, 𝑠𝑦) ∙ 𝑃
𝑠𝑥 0 𝑥𝑓(1 − 𝑠𝑥) 2 6 6 2
′
𝑃 = [ 0 𝑠𝑦 𝑦𝑓(1 − 𝑠𝑦)] [2 2 6 6]
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
0.5 0 4(1 − 0.5) 2 6 6 2
𝑃′ = [ 0 0.5 4(1 − 0.5)] [2 2 6 6]
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0 2 2 6 6 2
𝑃′ = [ 0 0.5 2] [2 2 6 6]
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
3 5 5 3
𝑃′ = [3 3 5 5]
1 1 1 1
Final coordinate after scaling are [A’ (3, 3), B’ (5, 3), C’ (5, 5), D’ (3, 5)]

General Scaling Directions

𝒔𝟐

𝒔𝟏

Fig. 3.8: - General scaling direction.

Parameter 𝒔𝒙 and 𝒔𝒚 scale the object along 𝒙 and 𝒚 directions. We can scale an object in other directions
by rotating the object to align the desired scaling directions with the coordinate axes before applying the
scaling transformation.
Suppose we apply scaling factor 𝒔𝟏 and 𝒔𝟐 in direction shown in figure than we will apply following
transformations.
1. Perform a rotation so that the direction for 𝒔𝟏 and 𝒔𝟐 coincide with 𝒙 and 𝒚 axes.
2. Scale the object with specified scale factors.
3. Perform opposite rotation to return points to their original orientations. (i.e. Inverse of step-1).
Let’s find matrix equation for this
𝑷′ = 𝑹−𝟏(𝜽) ∙ [𝑺(𝒔𝟏, 𝒔𝟐) ∙ {𝑹(𝜽) ∙ 𝑷}]
𝑷′ = {𝑹−𝟏(𝜽) ∙ 𝑺(𝒔𝟏, 𝒔𝟐) ∙ 𝑹(𝜽)} ∙ 𝑷
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎
′
𝑷 = [− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎] [ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎] [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
𝒔𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 (𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎
𝑷′ = [(𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒔𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽 𝟎] ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
′
Here 𝑷 and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point coordinate respectively and 𝜽 is the angle
between actual scaling direction and our standard coordinate axes.

The Viewing Pipeline

Window: Area selected in world-coordinate for display is called window. It defines what is to be viewed.
Viewport: Area on a display device in which window image is display (mapped) is called viewport.
It defines where to display.
In many case window and viewport are rectangle, also other shape may be used as window and viewport.
In general finding device coordinates of viewport from word coordinates of window is called as viewing
transformation.
Sometimes we consider this viewing transformation as window-to-viewport transformation but in general
it involves more steps.

Fig. 3.1: - A viewing transformation using standard rectangles for the window and viewport.
Now we see steps involved in viewing pipeline.

Construct World- Convert Map Viewing

Map
MC Coordinate Scene WC World- Coordinate to NVC DC
Normalized
Using Modeling- VC Coordinate to Normalized Viewing
Viewport to
Coordinate Viewing Coordinates using
Device
Transformations Coordinates Window-Viewport
Coordinates
Specifications

Fig. 3.2: - 2D viewing pipeline.

As shown in figure above first of all we construct world coordinate scene using modeling coordinate
transformation.
After this we convert viewing coordinates from world coordinates using window to viewport
transformation.
Then we map viewing coordinate to normalized viewing coordinate in which we obtain values in between
0 to 1.
At last we convert normalized viewing coordinate to device coordinate using device driver software
which provide device specification.
Finally device coordinate is used to display image on display screen.
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
By changing the viewport position on screen we can see image at different place on the screen.
By changing the size of the window and viewport we can obtain zoom in and zoom out effect as per
requirement.
Fixed size viewport and small size window gives zoom in effect, and fixed size viewport and
larger window gives zoom out effect.
View ports are generally defines with the unit square so that graphics package are more device
independent which we call as normalized viewing coordinate.
Viewing Coordinate Reference Frame

Fig. 3.3: - A viewing-coordinate frame is moved into coincidence with the world frame in two steps: (a)
translate the viewing origin to the world origin, and then (b) rotate to align the axes of the two systems.
We can obtain reference frame in any direction and at any position.
For handling such condition first of all we translate reference frame origin to standard reference frame
origin and then we rotate it to align it to standard axis.
In this way we can adjust window in any reference frame.
this is illustrate by following transformation matrix:
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
𝐌𝐰𝐜,𝐯𝐜 = 𝐑𝐓
Where T is translation matrix and R is rotation matrix.
Window-To-Viewport Coordinate Transformation
Mapping of window coordinate to viewport is called window to viewport transformation.
We do this using transformation that maintains relative position of window coordinate into viewport.
That means center coordinates in window must be remains at center position in viewport.
We find relative position by equation as follow:
𝐱𝐯 − 𝐱𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐱 − 𝐱𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧
= 𝐰
𝐱𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐱𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐱𝐰𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐱𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧

𝐲𝐯 − 𝐲𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐲 − 𝐲𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧
= 𝐰
𝐲𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐲𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐲𝐰𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐲𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧
Solving by making viewport position as subject we obtain:
𝐱𝐯 = 𝐱𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 + (𝐱𝐰 − 𝐱𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧)𝐬𝐱
𝐲𝐯 = 𝐲𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 + (𝐲𝐰 − 𝐲𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧)𝐬𝐲
Where scaling factor are :
𝐱 −𝐱
𝐬𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐱𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐰𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐲𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐲𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐬𝐲 =
𝐲𝐰𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐲𝐰𝐦𝐢𝐧
We can also map window to viewport with the set of transformation, which include following sequence of
transformations:
1. Perform a scaling transformation using a fixed-point position of (xWmin,ywmin) that scales the window
area to the size of the viewport.
2. Translate the scaled window area to the position of the viewport.
For maintaining relative proportions we take (sx = sy). in case if both are not equal then we get stretched or
contracted in either the x or y direction when displayed on the output device.
Characters are handle in two different way one way is simply maintain relative position like other
primitive and other is to maintain standard character size even though viewport size is enlarged or reduce.
Number of display device can be used in application and for each we can use different window-to-
viewport transformation. This mapping is called the workstation transformation.

Fig. 3.4: - workstation transformation.

 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
As shown in figure two different displays devices are used and we map different window-to-viewport on
each one.
Clipping Operations
Generally, any procedure that identifies those portions of a picture that are either inside or outside of a
specified region of space is referred to as a clipping algorithm, or simply clipping. The region against
which an object is to clip is called a clip window.
Clip window can be general polygon or it can be curved boundary.
Application of Clipping
It can be used for displaying particular part of the picture on display screen.
Identifying visible surface in 3D views.
Antialiasing.
Creating objects using solid-modeling procedures.
Displaying multiple windows on same screen.
Drawing and painting.
Point Clipping
In point clipping we eliminate those points which are outside the clipping window and draw points which
are inside the clipping window.
Here we consider clipping window is rectangular boundary with edge (xwmin,xwmax,ywmin,ywmax).
So for finding wether given point is inside or outside the clipping window we use following inequality:
𝒙𝒘𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒙𝒘𝒂𝒎𝒙
𝒚𝒘𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒚 ≤ 𝒚𝒘𝒂𝒎𝒙
If above both inequality is satisfied then the point is inside otherwise the point is outside the clipping
window.
Line Clipping
Line clipping involves several possible cases.
1. Completely inside the clipping window.
2. Completely outside the clipping window.
3. Partially inside and partially outside the clipping window.

P9

Window Window
P4 P10

P2 P2
P8
P1 P1
P5 P5 P8
P3 P6 P6

P7

P7

Before After
Clipping Clipping (b)
(a)
Fig. 3.5: - Line clipping against a rectangular window.
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
Line which is completely inside is display completely. Line which is completely outside is eliminated
from display. And for partially inside line we need to calculate intersection with window boundary and
find which part is inside the clipping boundary and which part is eliminated.
For line clipping several scientists tried different methods to solve this clipping procedure. Some of them
are discuss below.
Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping
This is one of the oldest and most popular line-clipping procedures.

Region and Region Code

In this we divide whole space into nine region and assign 4 bit code to each endpoint of line depending on
the position where the line endpoint is located.

1001 1000 1010

0001 0000 0010

0101 0100 0110

Fig. 3.6: - Workstation transformation.

Figure 3.6 shows code for line end point which is fall within particular area.
Code is deriving by setting particular bit according to position of area.
Set bit 1: For left side of clipping window.
Set bit 2: For right side of clipping
window. Set bit 3: For below clipping
window.
Set bit 4: For above clipping window.
All bits as mention above are set means 1 and other are 0.

Algorithm
Step-1:
Assign region code to both endpoint of a line depending on the position where the line endpoint is located.

Step-2:
If both endpoint have code ‘0000’
Then line is completely inside.
Otherwise
Perform logical ending between this two codes.

If result of logical ending is non-zero

Line is completely outside the clipping window.
Otherwise
Calculate the intersection point with the boundary one by one.
Divide the line into two parts from intersection point.
Recursively call algorithm for both line segments.
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing

Step-3:
Draw line segment which are completely inside and eliminate other line segment which found completely
outside.

Intersection points calculation with clipping window boundary

For intersection calculation we use line equation “𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏”.
‘𝑥′ is constant for left and right boundary which is:
o for left “𝑥 = 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛”
o for right “𝑥 = 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥”
So we calculate 𝑦 coordinate of intersection for this boundary by putting values of 𝑥 depending on
boundary is left or right in below equation.
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏)
′𝑦′ coordinate is constant for top and bottom boundary which is:
o for top “𝑦 = 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥”
o for bottom “𝑦 = 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛”
So we calculate 𝑥 coordinate of intersection for this boundary by putting values of 𝑦 depending on
boundary is top or bottom in below equation.
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 +
𝒎
Liang-Barsky Line Clipping
Line clipping approach is given by the Liang and Barsky is faster than cohen-sutherland line
clipping. Which is based on analysis of the parametric equation of the line which are as below.
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒖∆𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒖∆𝒚
Where 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 1 ,∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 and ∆𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1.

Algorithm
1. Read two end points of line 𝑃1(𝑥1, 𝑦1) and 𝑃2(𝑥2, 𝑦2)
2. Read two corner vertices, left top and right bottom of window: (𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥) and (𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥, 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛)
3. Calculate values of parameters 𝑝𝑘 and 𝑞𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, 4 such that,
𝑝1 = −∆𝑥, 𝑞1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑝2 = ∆𝑥, 𝑞2 = 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑝3 = −∆𝑦, 𝑞3 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑝4 = ∆𝑦, 𝑞4 = 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1
4. If 𝑝𝑘 = 0 for any value of 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, 4 then,
Line is parallel to 𝑘𝑡ℎ boundary.

If corresponding 𝑞𝑘 < 0 then,

Line is completely outside the boundary. Therefore, discard line segment and Go to Step
10.
Otherwise
Check line is horizontal or vertical and accordingly check line end points with
corresponding boundaries.

If line endpoints lie within the bounded area

Then use them to draw line.
Otherwise
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
Use boundary coordinates to draw line. And go to Step 8.
5. For 𝑘 = 1,2,3,4 calculate 𝑟𝑘 for nonzero values of 𝑝𝑘 and 𝑞𝑘 as follows:
𝑞𝑘
𝑟𝑘 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 1,2,3,4
𝑝𝑘
6. Find 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 as given below:
𝑢1 = max{0, 𝑟𝑘|𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑘 < 0}
𝑢2 = min{1, 𝑟𝑘|𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑘 > 0}
7. If 𝑢1 ≤ 𝑢2 then
Calculate endpoints of clipped line:
𝑥1′ = 𝑥1 + 𝑢1∆𝑥
𝑦1′ = 𝑦1 + 𝑢1∆𝑦
𝑥2′ = 𝑥1 + 𝑢2∆𝑥
𝑦2′ = 𝑦1 + 𝑢2∆𝑦
Draw line (𝑥1′, 𝑦1′, 𝑥2′, 𝑦2′);
8. Stop.

Advantages
1. More efficient.
2. Only requires one division to update 𝑢1 and 𝑢2.
3. Window intersections of line are calculated just once.
Nicholl-Lee-Nicholl Line Clipping
By creating more regions around the clip window the NLN algorithm avoids multiple clipping of
an individual line segment.
In Cohen-Sutherlan line clipping sometimes multiple calculation of intersection point of a line is done
before actual window boundary intersection or line is completely rejected.
These multiple intersection calculation is avoided in NLN line clipping procedure.
NLN line clipping perform the fewer comparisons and divisions so it is more efficient.
But NLN line clipping cannot be extended for three dimensions while Cohen-Sutherland and Liang-
Barskyalgorithm can be easily extended for three dimensions.
For given line we find first point falls in which region out of nine region shown in figure below but three
region shown in figure by putting point are only considered and if point falls in other region than we
transfer that point in one of the three region.

P1

P
P1 1

P1 in P1 in Edge P1 in Corner
Window Region (b) Region (c)
(a)

Fig. 3.7: - Three possible position for a line endpoint p1 in the NLN line-clipping algorithm.
We can also extend this procedure for all nine regions.
Now for p1 is inside the window we divide whole area in following region:
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing

Fig. 3.8: - Clipping region when p1 is inside the window.

Now for p1 is in edge region we divide whole area in following region:

Fig. 3.9: - Clipping region when p1 is in edge

region.
Now for p1 is in corner region we divide whole area in following region:

Fig. 3.10: - Two possible sets of clipping region when p1 is in corner region.
Regions are name in such a way that name in which region p2 falls is gives the window edge which
intersects the line.
For example region LT says that line need to clip at left and top boundary.
For finding that in which region line 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝟐 falls we compare the slope of the line to the slope of the
boundaries:
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝑩𝟏 < 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝟐 < 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝑩𝟐
Where 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝑩𝟏 and 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝑩𝟐 are boundary lines.
For example p1 is in edge region and for checking whether p2 is in region LT we use following equation.

𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝑻𝑹 < 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝟐 < 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝒑𝟏𝒑𝑻𝑳

𝒚 𝑻 − 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚 𝟐 − 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚 𝑻 − 𝒚𝟏
< <
𝒙 𝑹 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝑳 − 𝒙 𝟏
After checking slope condition we need to check weather it crossing zero, one or two edges.
This can be done by comparing coordinates of 𝑝2 with coordinates of window boundary.
For left and right boundary we compare 𝑥 coordinates and for top and bottom boundary we compare 𝑦
coordinates.
If line is not fall in any defined region than clip entire line.
 Unit-4 – 2D Transformation & Viewing
Otherwise calculate intersection.
After finding region we calculate intersection point using parametric equation which are:
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏)𝒖
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏)𝒖
For left or right boundary 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑟 respectively, with 𝑢 = (𝑥𝑙/𝑟 – 𝑥1)/ (𝑥2 – 𝑥1), so that 𝑦 can be obtain
from parametric equation as below:
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏 (𝒙𝑳 − 𝒙𝟏)
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙 𝟏
Keep the portion which is inside and clip the rest.
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing

3D Translation

Fig. 5.1: - 3D Translation.

 Similar to 2D translation, which used 3x3 matrices, 3D translation use 4X4 matrices (X, Y, Z, h).
 In 3D translation point (X, Y, Z) is to be translated by amount tx, ty and tz to location (X', Y', Z').
𝒙, = 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒙
𝒚, = 𝒚 + 𝒕𝒚
𝒛, = 𝒛 + 𝒕𝒛
 Let’s see matrix equation
𝑷′ = 𝑻 ∙ 𝑷
𝒙, 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒕𝒙 𝒙
𝒚′ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒚 𝒚
[𝒛 , ] = [ ]∙
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒛 [𝒛]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Example : - Translate the given point P (10,10,10) into 3D space with translation factor T (10,20,5).
𝑃′ = 𝑇 ∙ 𝑃
𝑥, 1 0 0 𝑡𝑥 𝑥
𝑦′ 0 1 0 𝑡𝑦 𝑦
[𝑧, ] = [ ]∙
0 0 1 𝑡𝑧 [𝑧]
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥 ,
𝑦 ′ 1 0 0
0 1 0 20 10 10 10
[ ]=[ ]∙[ ]
𝑧, 0 0 1 5 10
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥, 20
𝑦′ 30
[𝑧, ] = [ ]
15
1 1
Final coordinate after translation is P, (20, 30, 15).

Rotation
 For 3D rotation we need to pick an axis to rotate about.
 The most common choices are the X-axis, the Y-axis, and the Z-axis
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
Coordinate-Axes Rotations

Y Y Y

X X X

Z Z Z

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.2: - 3D Rotations.

Z-Axis Rotation
 Two dimension rotation equations can be easily convert into 3D Z-axis rotation equations.
 Rotation about z axis we leave z coordinate unchanged.
𝒙, = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒚, = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒛, = 𝒛
Where Parameter 𝜽 specify rotation angle.
 Matrix equation is written as:
𝑷′ = 𝑹𝒛(𝜽) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝒚
= ] ∙
𝒛, [ ] [ [𝒛]
𝟎 𝟎𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

X-Axis Rotation
 Transformation equation for x-axis is obtain from equation of z-axis rotation by replacing cyclically as
shown here
𝒙→𝒚→𝒛→𝒙
 Rotation about x axis we leave x coordinate unchanged.
𝒚, = 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒛, = 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒙, = 𝒙
Where Parameter 𝜽 specify rotation angle.
 Matrix equation is written as:
𝑷′ = 𝑹𝒙(𝜽) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙,′ 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒚
, [ ]
=
[ ] ∙[ ]
𝒛 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝒛
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

Y-A xis Rotation

 Transformation equation for y-axis is obtain from equation of x-axis rotation by replacing cyclically as
shown here
𝒙→𝒚→𝒛→𝒙
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
 Rotation about y axis we leave y coordinate unchanged.
𝒛, = 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒙, = 𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒚, = 𝒚
Where Parameter 𝜽 specify rotation angle.
 Matrix equation is written as:
𝑷′ = 𝑹𝒚(𝜽) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′
[ ]=[ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎] ∙ [ 𝒚]
𝒛, − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝒛
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Example: - Rotate the point P(5,5,5) 90o about Z axis.
𝑃′ = 𝑅𝑧(𝜃) ∙ 𝑃
𝑥′, cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 0 𝑥
𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 0 𝑦
[ ] [0
= ] ∙[ ]
𝑧, 0 1 0 𝑧
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥, cos 90 − sin 90 0 0 𝑥
𝑦′ sin 90 cos 90 0 0 𝑦
= ]∙
𝑧, [ ] [ 0 0 1 0 [𝑧]
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥,
𝑦 ′ 0 −1 0 0 5
1 0 0 0 5
[ ]=[ ]∙[ ]
𝑧, 0 0 1 0 5
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥, −5
𝑦′ 5
[𝑧, ] = [ ]
5
1 1
Final coordinate after rotation is P, (-5, 5, 5).

General 3D Rotations when rotation axis is parallel to one of the standard axis
 Three steps require to complete such rotation
1. Translate the object so that the rotation axis coincides with the parallel coordinate axis.
2. Perform the specified rotation about that axis.
3. Translate the object so that the rotation axis is moved back to its original position.
 This can be represented in equation form as:
𝑷′ = 𝑻−𝟏 ∙ 𝑹(𝜽) ∙ 𝑻 ∙ 𝑷

General 3D Rotations when rotation axis is inclined in arbitrary direction

 When object is to be rotated about an axis that is not parallel to one of the coordinate axes, we need
rotations to align the axis with a selected coordinate axis and to bring the axis back to its original
orientation.
 Five steps require to complete such rotation.
1. Translate the object so that the rotation axis passes through the coordinate origin.
2. Rotate the object so that the axis of rotation coincides with one of the coordinate axes.
3. Perform the specified rotation about that coordinate axis.
4. Apply inverse rotations to bring the rotation axis back to its original orientation.
5. Apply the inverse translation to bring the rotation axis back to its original position.
 We can transform rotation axis onto any of the three coordinate axes. The Z-axis is a reasonable choice.
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
 We are given line in the form of two end points P1 (x1,y1,z1), and P2 (x2,y2,z2).
 We will see procedure step by step.
1) Translate the object so that the rotation axis passes through the coordinate origin.

Y
P2

P1

Fig. 5.3: - Translation of vector V.

 For translation of step one we will bring first end point at origin and transformation matrix for the same is
as below
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝒙𝟏
𝑻=[ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝒚𝟏]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝒛𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
2) Rotate the object so that the axis of rotation coincides with one of the coordinate axes.
 This task can be completed by two rotations first rotation about x-axis and second rotation about y-axis.
 But here we do not know rotation angle so we will use dot product and vector product.
 Lets write rotation axis in vector form.
𝑽 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏, 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏, 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏)
 Unit vector along rotation axis is obtained by dividing vector by its magnitude.
𝑽 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏
𝒖= =( , , ) = (𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄)
|𝑽| |𝑽| |𝑽| |𝑽|

u’ u

α
X
uz

Fig. 5.4: - Projection of u on YZ-Plane.

 Now we need cosine and sin value of angle between unit vector ‘u’ and XZ plane and for that we will
take projection of u on YZ-plane say ‘u’’ and then find dot product and cross product of ‘u’’ and ‘uz’ .
 Coordinate of ‘u’’ is (0,b,c) as we will take projection on YZ-plane x value is zero.
𝒖′ ∙ 𝒖𝒛 = |𝒖′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑎
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
𝒖′ ∙ 𝒖𝒛 (𝟎, 𝒃, 𝒄)(𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏) 𝒄
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑎 = ′ = = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅 = √𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
|𝒖 ||𝒖𝒛| √𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒅
And
𝒖′ × 𝒖𝒛 = 𝒖𝒙|𝒖′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 = 𝒖𝒙 ∙ 𝒃
𝒖𝒙|𝒖′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 = 𝒖𝒙 ∙ 𝒃
Comparing magnitude
|𝒖′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 = 𝒃
√𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 ∙ (𝟏) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 = 𝒃
𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 = 𝒃
𝒃
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 =
𝒅
 Now we have 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑎 so we will write matrix for rotation about X-axis.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹𝒙 (𝑎) = [ 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑎 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 𝟎]
𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝖥 𝒄 𝒃 1
I𝟎 − 𝟎l
𝒅 𝒅
𝑹𝒙(𝑎) = I l
I 𝒃 𝒄 l
𝒅 𝒅 I𝟎 𝟎l
[𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏]
 After performing above rotation ‘u’ will rotated into ‘u’’’ in XZ-plane with coordinates (a, 0, √(b2+c2)).
As we know rotation about x axis will leave x coordinate unchanged, ‘u’’’ is in XZ=plane so y coordinate
is zero, and z component is same as magnitude of ‘u’’.
 Now rotate ‘u’’’ about Y-axis so that it coincides with Z-axis.

X
uz β u’’

Fig. 5.5: - Rotation of u about X-axis.

 For that we repeat above procedure between ‘u’’’ and ‘uz’ to find matrix for rotation about Y-axis.
𝒖′′ ∙ 𝒖𝒛 = |𝒖′′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝖰
𝒖′ ∙ 𝒖𝒛 (𝒂, 𝟎, √𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐) (𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝖰 = ′ = = √𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅 = √𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
|𝒖 ||𝒖𝒛| 𝟏
And
𝒖′′ × 𝒖𝒛 = 𝒖𝒚|𝒖′′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 = 𝒖𝒚 ∙ (−𝒂)
𝒖𝒚|𝒖′′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 = 𝒖𝒚 ∙ (−𝒂)
Comparing magnitude
|𝒖′′||𝒖𝒛| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 = (−𝒂)
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
(𝟏) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 = − 𝒂
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 = − 𝒂
 Now we have 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝖰 so we will write matrix for rotation about Y-axis.
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝖰 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹𝒚(𝖰) = [ ]
− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝖰 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝖰 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒅 𝟎 −𝒂 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹 (𝖰) = [ ]
𝒚
𝒂 𝟎 𝒅 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Now by combining both rotation we can coincides rotation axis with Z-axis
3) Perform the specified rotation about that coordinate axis.
 As we know we align rotation axis with Z axis so now matrix for rotation about z axis
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹𝒛 (𝜽) = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
4) Apply inverse rotations to bring the rotation axis back to its original orientation.
 This step is inverse of step number 2.
5) Apply the inverse translation to bring the rotation axis back to its original position.
6) This step is inverse of step number 1.

So finally sequence of transformation for general 3D rotation is

𝑷′ = 𝑻−𝟏 ∙ 𝑹𝒙−𝟏(𝑎) ∙ 𝑹𝒚−𝟏(𝖰) ∙ 𝑹𝒛(𝜽) ∙ 𝑹𝒚(𝖰) ∙ 𝑹𝒙(𝑎) ∙ 𝑻 ∙ 𝑷

Scaling
 It is used to resize the object in 3D space.
 We can apply uniform as well as non uniform scaling by selecting proper scaling factor.
 Scaling in 3D is similar to scaling in 2D. Only one extra coordinate need to consider into it.

Coordinate Axes Scaling

Scaling

Fig. 5.6: - 3D Scaling.

 Simple coordinate axis scaling can be performed as below.
𝑷′ = 𝑺 ∙ 𝑷
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
𝒙′, 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙
[𝒚 ] [𝟎 𝒔 𝟎 𝟎 ∙ 𝒚
𝒛, = 𝟎 𝟎𝒚 𝒔 ] [ ]
𝒛 𝟎 𝒛
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Example: - Scale the line AB with coordinates (10,20,10) and (20,30,30) respectively with scale
factor S(3,2,4).
𝑃′ = 𝑆 ∙ 𝑃
𝑥′, 𝑠𝑥 0 0 0 𝑥
[𝑦 ] [ 0 𝑠𝑦 0 0] ∙ 𝑦
=
𝑧, 0 0 𝑠𝑧 0 [𝑧]
1 0 0 0 1 1
′ ′
𝐴 𝐵𝑥 3 0 0 0 10 20
𝖥 𝑥′ ′
1
I𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 l = [0 2 0 0] ∙ [20 30]
I𝐴𝑧′ 𝐵𝑧′ l 0 0 4 0 10 30
[ 1 1 ] 0 0 0 1 1 1
′ ′
𝐴 𝐵𝑥 30 60
𝖥 𝑥′ ′
1
I𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 l = [40 60 ]
I𝐴𝑧′ 𝐵𝑧′ l 40 120
[ 1 1 ] 1 1
Final coordinates after scaling are A, (30, 40, 40) and B’ (60, 60, 120).

Fixed Point Scaling

Y Fixed Point Scaling

X
Fixed Point

Fig. 5.7: - 3D Fixed point scaling.

 Fixed point scaling is used when we require scaling of object but particular point must be at its original
position.
 Fixed point scaling matrix can be obtained in three step procedure.
1. Translate the fixed point to the origin.
2. Scale the object relative to the coordinate origin using coordinate axes scaling.
3. Translate the fixed point back to its original position.
 Let’s see its equation.
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒙𝒇, 𝒚𝒇, 𝒛𝒇) ∙ 𝑺(𝒔𝒙, 𝒔𝒚, 𝒔𝒛) ∙ 𝑻(−𝒙𝒇, −𝒚𝒇, −𝒛𝒇) ∙ 𝑷
𝖥𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙𝒇 1 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝖥𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝒙𝒇 1
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒚𝒇l 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎 𝟎 I𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝒚𝒇l
] 𝑷′ = I ∙[ ∙ ∙𝑷
I𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒛 𝒇l 𝟎 𝟎 𝒔𝒛 I𝟎 𝟎 𝟎𝟏 −𝒛 l 𝒇
[𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ] 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 [𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ]
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
𝖥𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒙)𝒙𝒇1
′ 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒚)𝒚𝒇
𝑷 =I l∙𝑷
I𝟎 𝟎 𝒔𝒛 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒛)𝒛𝒇 l [
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ]

Other Transformations
Reflections
 Reflection means mirror image produced when mirror is placed at require position.
 When mirror is placed in XY-plane we obtain coordinates of image by just changing the sign of z
coordinate.
 Transformation matrix for reflection about XY-plane is given below.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹𝑭 = [ ]
𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Similarly Transformation matrix for reflection about YZ-plane is.
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹𝑭 = [ ]
𝒙
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Similarly Transformation matrix for reflection about XZ-plane is.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹𝑭𝒚 = [ 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

Shears
 Shearing transformation can be used to modify object shapes.
 They are also useful in 3D viewing for obtaining general projection transformations.
 Here we use shear parameter ‘a’ and ‘b’
 Shear matrix for Z-axis is given below
𝟏 𝟎 𝒂 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝒃 𝟎
𝑺𝑯 = [ ]
𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Similarly Shear matrix for X-axis is.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝒂 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺𝑯 = [ ]
𝒙
𝒃 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Similarly Shear matrix for X-axis is.
𝟏 𝒂 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺𝑯 = [ ]
𝒚
𝟎 𝒃 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
Viewing Pipeline

Modeling Modeling World Viewing Viewing

Coordinates Transformation Coordinates Transformation Coordinates

Projection Projection Workstation Device

Transformation Coordinates Transformation Coordinates

Fig. 5.8: - General 3D viewing pipeline.

 Steps involved in 3D pipeline are similar to the process of taking a photograph.
 As shown in figure that initially we have modeling coordinate of any object which we want to display on
the screen.
 By applying modeling transformation we convert modeling coordinates to world coordinates which gives
which part or portion is to be display.
 Then by applying viewing transformation we obtain the viewing coordinate which is fitted in viewing
coordinate reference frame.
 Then in case of three dimensional objects we have three dimensions coordinate but we need to display that
object on two dimensional screens so we apply projection transformation on it which gives projection
coordinate.
 Finally projection coordinate is converted into device coordinate by applying workstation transformation
which gives coordinates which is specific to particular device.

Viewing Co-ordinates.
 Generating a view of an object is similar to photographing the object.
 We can take photograph from any side with any angle & orientation of camera.
 Similarly we can specify viewing coordinate in ordinary direction.

Fig. 5.9: -A right handed viewing coordinate system, with axes Xv, Yv, and Zv, relative to a
world-coordinate scene.

Specifying the view plan

 We decide view for a scene by first establishing viewing coordinate system, also referred as view
reference coordinate system.
 Then projection plane is setup in perpendicular direction to Zv axis.
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
 Then projections positions in the scene are transferred to viewing coordinate then viewing coordinate
are projected onto the view plane.
 The origin of our viewing coordinate system is called view reference point.
 View reference point is often chosen to be close to or on the surface as same object scene. We can also
choose other point also.
 Next we select positive direction for the viewing Zv axis and the orientation of the view plane by
specifying the view plane normal vector N.
 Finally we choose the up direction for the view by specifying a vector V called the view up vector. Which
specify orientation of camera.
 View up vector is generally selected perpendicular to normal vector but we can select any angle between
V & N.
 By fixing view reference point and changing direction of normal vector N we get different views of same
object this is illustrated by figure below.

Fig. 5.10: -Viewing scene from different direction with a fixed view-reference point.

Transformation from world to viewing coordinates

 Before taking projection of view plane object description is need to transfer from world to viewing
coordinate.
 It is same as transformation that superimposes viewing coordinate system to world coordinate system.
 It requires following basic transformation.
 1) Translate view reference point to the origin of the world coordinate system.
 2) Apply rotation to align

Fig. 5.11: - Aligning a viewing system with the world-coordinate axes using a sequence of translate-rotate
transformations.
 As shown in figure the steps of transformation
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
 Consider view reference point in world coordinate system is at position (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0)than for align view
reference point to world origin we perform translation with matrix:
1 0 0 −𝑥0
 𝑇=[ 0 1 0 −𝑦0]
0 0 1 −𝑧0
0 0 0 1
 Now we require rotation sequence up-to three coordinate axis rotations depending upon direction we
choose for N.
 In general case N is at arbitrary direction then we can align it with word coordinate axes by rotation
sequence 𝑅𝑧 ∙ 𝑅𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑥.
 Another method for generating the rotation transformation matrix is to calculate unit uvn vectors and
from the composite rotation matrix directly.
 Here
𝑁
𝑛= = (𝑛1, 𝑛2 , 𝑛3)
|𝑁|
𝑉×𝑁
𝑢= = (𝑢1, 𝑢2 , 𝑢3)
|𝑉 × 𝑁|
𝑣 = 𝑛 × 𝑢 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3)
 This method also automatically adjusts the direction for u so that v is perpendicular to n.
 Than composite rotation matrix for the viewing transformation is then:
𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 0
𝑅 = [𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 0]
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3 0
0 0 0 1
 This aligns u to Xw axis, v to Yw axis and n to Zw axis.
 Finally composite matrix for world to viewing coordinate transformation is given by:
 𝑀𝑤𝑐,𝑣𝑐 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇
 This transformation is applied to object’s coordinate to transfer them to the viewing reference frame.

Projections
 Once world-coordinate descriptions of the objects in a scene are converted to viewing coordinates, we
can project the three-dimensional objects onto the two-dimensional view plane.
 Process of converting three-dimensional coordinates into two-dimensional scene is known as projection.
 There are two projection methods namely.
1. Parallel Projection.
2. Perspective Projection.
 Lets discuss each one.

Parallel Projections
View
Plane
P1
P1’

P2
P2’

Fig. 5.12: - Parallel projection.

 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
 In a parallel projection, coordinate positions are transformed to the view plane along parallel lines, as
shown in the, example of above Figure.
 We can specify a parallel projection with a projection vector that defines the direction for the projection
lines.
 It is further divide into two types.
1. Orthographic parallel projection.
2. Oblique parallel projection.

Orthographic parallel projection

View Plane

Projection Line

Fig. 5.13: - Orthographic parallel projection.

 When the projection lines are perpendicular to the view plane, we have an orthographic parallel
projection.
 Orthographic projections are most often used to produce the front, side, and top views of an object, as
shown in Fig.

Fig. 5.14: - Orthographic parallel projection.

 Engineering and architectural drawings commonly use orthographic projections, because lengths and
angles are accurately depicted and can be measure from the drawings.
 We can also form orthographic projections that display more than one face of an object. Such view are
called axonometric orthographic projections. Very good example of it is Isometric projection.
 Transformation equations for an orthographic parallel projection are straight forward.
 If the view plane is placed at position zvp along the zv axis, then any point (x, y, z) in viewing
coordinates is transformed to projection coordinates as
𝒙𝒑 = 𝒙, 𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing

(X,Y,Z) Yv

(X,Y)
Xv

Zv

Fig. 5.15: - Orthographic parallel projection.

 Where the original z-coordinate value is preserved for the depth information needed in depth cueing
and visible-surface determination procedures.

Oblique parallel projection.

View Plane

Projection Line

Fig. 5.16: - Oblique parallel projection.

 An oblique projection is obtained by projecting points along parallel lines that are not perpendicular to
the projection plane.
 Coordinate of oblique parallel projection can be obtained as below.
Yv

(Xp, Yp)
(X,Y,Z)
αL
Φ
Xv
(X,Y)

Zv

Fig. 5.17: - Oblique parallel projection.

 As shown in the figure (X,Y,Z) is a point of which we are taking oblique projection (Xp,Yp) on the
view plane and point (X,Y) on view plane is orthographic projection of (X,Y,Z).
 Now from figure using trigonometric rules we can write
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
𝒙𝒑 = 𝒙 + 𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚 + 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
 Length L depends on the angle α and the z coordinate of the point to be projected:
𝒁
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑎 =
𝑳
𝒁
𝑳=
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑎
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝒁𝑳𝟏 , 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑳𝟏 =
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑎
 Now put the value of L in projection equation.
𝒙𝒑 = 𝒙 + 𝒁𝑳𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚 + 𝒁𝑳𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
 Now we will write transformation matrix for this equation.
𝟏 𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝟎
𝑴𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 = [ 𝟎 𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 This equation can be used for any parallel projection. For orthographic projection L1=0 and so whole
term which is multiply with z component is zero.
 When value of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑎 = 𝟏 projection is known as Cavalier projection.
 When value of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑎 = 𝟐 projection is known as Cabinet projection.

Perspective Projection
View
Plane
P1
P1
’
Projection
P2 Reference
P2’
point

Fig. 5.18: - Perspective projection.

 In perspective projection object positions are transformed to the view plane along lines that converge to a
point called the projection reference point (or center of projection or vanishing point).

P=(x,y,z)

(xp,yp,zvp)

zvp zprp zv
View
Plan
e

Fig. 5.19: - Perspective projection.

 Suppose we set the projection reference point at position zprp along the zv axis, and we place the view plane
at zvp as shown in Figure above. We can write equations describing coordinate positions along this
perspective projection line in parametric form as
 Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝒖
𝒚′ = 𝒚 − 𝒚𝒖
𝒛′ = 𝒛 − (𝒛 − 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑)𝒖
 Here parameter u takes the value from 0 to 1, which is depends on the position of object, view plane,
and projection reference point.
 For obtaining value of u we will put z’=zvp and solve equation of z’.
𝒛′ = 𝒛 − (𝒛 − 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑)𝒖
𝒛𝒗𝒑 = 𝒛 − (𝒛 − 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑)𝒖
𝒛𝒗𝒑 − 𝒛
𝒖=
𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛
 Now substituting value of u in equation of x’ and y’ we will obtain.
𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒑
𝒙 = 𝒙( ) = 𝒙( )
𝒑 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛
𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒑
𝒚 = 𝒚( ) = 𝒚( ), 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅 = 𝒛 −𝒛
𝒑 𝒗𝒑
𝒑 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛 𝒑𝒓𝒑
 Using three dimensional homogeneous-coordinate representations, we can write the perspective
projection transformation matrix form as.
𝒙𝒉
𝒚𝒉 𝖥𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟏
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎 1 𝒚
𝒙

𝒛𝒗𝒑(𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑⁄𝒅𝒑) ∙ [𝒛]
[𝒛 ] = I𝟎 𝟎 − 𝒛𝒗𝒑⁄𝒅𝒑 l
𝒉 I l
𝒉 [𝟎 𝟎 − 𝟏⁄𝒅𝒑 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑⁄𝒅𝒑 ] 𝟏
 In this representation, the homogeneous factor is.
𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛
𝒉= 𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝒅𝒑
𝒙𝒑 = 𝒙𝒉⁄𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚𝒉⁄𝒉
 There are number of special cases for the perspective transformation equations.
 If view plane is taken to be uv plane, then 𝒛𝒗𝒑 = 𝟎 and the projection coordinates are.
𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒙( ) = 𝒙( )
𝒑 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛 𝟏 − 𝒛⁄𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑
𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒚( ) = 𝒚( )
𝒑 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 − 𝒛 𝟏 − 𝒛⁄𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑
 If we take projection reference point at origin than 𝒛𝒑𝒓𝒑 = 𝟎 and the projection coordinates are.
𝒛𝒗𝒑 𝟏
𝒙𝒑 = 𝒙 ( ) = 𝒙 ( )
𝒛 𝒛⁄𝒛𝒗𝒑
𝒛𝒗𝒑 𝟏
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚 ( ) = 𝒚 ( )
𝒛 𝒛⁄𝒛𝒗𝒑
 The vanishing point for any set of lines that are parallel to one of the principal axes of an object is referred
to as a principal vanishing point
 We control the number of principal vanishing points (one, two, or three) with the orientation of the
projection plane, and perspective projections are accordingly classified as one-point, two-point, or three-
point projections.

 The number of principal vanishing points in a projection is determined by the number of principal axes
intersecting the view plane.
Unit-5 – 3D Transformation and Viewing