REVIEWER (MIDTERMS) The art and science of designing and constructing

buildings.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE (lecture 1)
➢ ART - It is the conscience use of skill, craft,
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION ON THEORY OF
and creative imagination in the product of
ARCHITECTURE
what is beautiful, appealing, or Of more
Architecture is generally conceived-design and than ordinary significance. Visual
realized- built- in response to an existing set of (Aesthetics, beauty, taste)
conditions. These conditions may be purely ➢ SCIENCE - A branch of knowledge dealing
functional in nature, or they may also reflect in with a body of facts or truths obtained by
varying degrees the social, political, and economic direct observation, experimental
climate. investigation and methodical study,
systematically arranged and showing the
It is assumed that the existing set of conditions - the operation of general laws. (technology,
problem - is less than satisfactory and that a new set Techniques, building science, engineering,
of conditions- a solution- would be desirable. behavior.
The act of creating architecture, then, is a problem- ➢ DESIGNING - A plan or drawing produced to
solving or design process. show the look and function or workings of a
building. Space planning, environment,
THEORY urban, interior).
➢ CONSTRUCTING - To build (Construction
• Analysis of a set of facts in relation to one
methodology)
another.
• Belief, policy or procedure
proposed or followed as a basis of action ARCHITECTURE
• An ideal or hypothetical set of
The term comes from LATIN ARCHITECTURA
facts, principles or circumstances of a body
of fact on science or art. From Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων (Arkhitéktōn)
• A plausible or scientifically ‘architect’
accepted general principle or body of
principles offered to explain phenomenon. ἀρχι (arkhi-) ‘chief’ τέκτων (téktōn) ‘creator’ What is
Forms/types of Theory Architecture?

1. DESCRIPTIVE explains phenomenon or • Architecture is a very complex discipline.

events; they’re neutral and do not lean towards any Most people live their lives in constant
ideology. (Idealism; Realism) contact with architecture. It provides a
place to dwell, work, and play.
2. PRESCRIPTIVE prescribes bases or • There is no single correct formula for
guidelines determining the perfect layout of a house,or
3. CRITICAL challenges relationships between any other type of building.
architecture and society. (Marxism, Post Modernism, • At the same time as architecture is
Feminism) indefinite, it also has a responsibility to
facilitate specific functions.
LESSON 2: DEFINITION OF ARCHITECTURE AND ESSENCE OF ARCHITECTURE
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
• Architecture is the process that we
WHAT IS ARCHITECTURE? instinctively recognize as the genius of
 growth and creation. It gives form to the • Geography: soils, topography, vegetation,
invisible pulses and rhythm of life. and water
• The physical manifestation of the power is a
• Sensory and cultural characteristics of the
consequence of the desire for the invisible
place
to be made visible.
ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS

LESSON 3: ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS AND ORDERS SPACIAL SYSTEMS

➢ The architecture of: SPACE STRUCTURE • The three-dimensional integration of

ENCLOSURE program elements and spaces accommodates the
• Organizational pattern, relationships, multiple functions and relationships of a house.
hierarchy
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
• Qualities of shape, color, texture, scale,
proportion • A grid of columns supports horizontal
beams and slabs.
• Qualities of Surfaces, Edges, and
• The cantilever acknowledges the direction
➢ Openings Experienced through: of approach along the longitudinal axis.
MOVEMENT IN SPACE-TIME
• Approach and entry ENCLOSURE SYSTEM

• Path configuration and access • Four exterior wall planes define a

rectangular volume that contain the program
• Sequence of spaces elements and spaces.

• Light, view, touch, hearing, and smell CIRCULATION SYSTEM

➢ Achieved by means of: TECHNOLOGY • The stair and ramp penetrate and link the
• Structure and enclosure three levels and heighten the viewer’s perception of
forms in space and light.
• Environmental protection and comfort
• The curved form of the entrance foyer
• Health, safety and welfare
reflects the movement of the automobile.
➢ Durability Accommodating: PROGRAM
CONTEXT
• User requirements, needs, aspirations
• Gives meaning to parts of a building by
• Socio-cultural factors
reference to its surroundings.
• Economic factors
• A simple exterior form wraps
• Legal restraints around a complex interior organization of forms and
spaces.
• Historical tradition & precedents
• Elevating the main floor provides a better
➢ Compatible with its: CONTEXT
view and avoids the humidity of the ground.
• Site and environment
• A garden terrace distributes sunlight to the
• Climate: sun, wind, temperature, and
spaces gathered around it.
precipitation
ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS
 5. FORM

Is this point of contact between mass and space.

Shape - the characteristic outline or surface

configuration of a particular form. Shape is the
principal aspect by which we identify and categorize
forms.

Size - the physical dimensions of length, width, and

depth of a form. While these dimensions determine
LECTURE 2 the proportions of a form, its scale is determined by
its size relative to other forms in its context.
LESSON 1: BASIC ELEMENTS OF PROPERTIES OF
FORM Color - a phenomenon of light and visual perception
that may be described in terms of an individual’s
DESIGN perception of hue, saturation, and tonal value. Color
is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form
1. POINT
from its environment. It also affects the visual weight
o The two ends of a line of a form
o The intersection of two lines
Texture - the visual and especially tactile quality
o The meeting of lines at the corner of a
given to a surface by the size, shape, arrangement,
plane or volume
and proportions of the parts. Also determines the
o The center of a field
degree to which the surfaces of a form reflect or
2. LINE
absorb incident light.
A point extended becomes a line with properties of:
Position - the location of a form relative to its
o Length environment or the visual field within which it is
o Direction seen.
o Position
Orientation - the direction of form relative to the
3. PLANE
ground plane, the compass points, other forms, or to
A line extended becomes a plane with properties of: the person viewing the form

o Length and width Visual Inertia - the degree of concentration and

o Shape stability of a form. The visual inertia of a form
o Surface depends on its geometry as well as its orientation
o Orientation relative to the ground plane, the pull of gravity, and
o Position our line of sight.
4. VOLUME

A plane extended becomes a volume with properties

PRIMARY SOLIDS
of:
Sphere - a solid generated by the revolution of a
o Length, width, depth
semicircle about its diameter, whose surface is at all
o Form and space
points equidistant from the center.
o Surface
o Orientation Cylinder - a solid generated by the revolution of a
o Position rectangle about one of its sides.
Cone - a solid generated by the revolution of a right human body, rather than people having to adapt to
triangle about one of its sides. suit the buildings.

Pyramid - a polyhedron having a polygonal base and TWO BASIC AREAS OF ANTHROPOMETRY:
triangular faces meeting at a common point or
Static Anthropometry is the measurement of body
vertex.
sizes at restand when using devices such as chairs,
Cube - a prismatic solid bounded by six equal square tables, beds, mobility devices, and so on.
sides, the angle between any two adjacent faces
Functional Anthropometry is the measurement of
being a right angle.
abilities related to the completion of tasks, such as
reaching, maneuvering and motion, and other
aspects of space and equipment use.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR FORMS
The use of anthropometrics in building design aims
REGULAR FORMS refer to those whose parts are
to ensure that every person is as comfortable as
related to one another in a consistent and orderly
possible
manner. They are generally stable in nature and
symmetrical about one or more axes. The sphere, MAN AGAINST MAN
cylinder, cone, cube, and pyramid are prime
ERGONOMICS is an applied science concerned with
examples of regular forms.
designing and arranging things people use so that
IRREGULAR FORMS are those whose parts are the people and things interact most efficiently and
dissimilar in nature and related to one another in an safely.
inconsistent manner. They are generally
Ergonomics is about ensuring a good fit between
asymmetrical and more dynamic than regular forms.
people and the things they interact with. This could
They can be regular forms from which irregular
include the objects they use or the environments
elements have been subtracted or result from an
they live in. You should consider ergonomics in the
irregular composition of regular forms.
design of every

product, system, or enviro. You should focus on

LESSON 2: ANTHROPOMETRICS AND ERGONOMICS ergonomics early in the design process.

ANTHROPOMETRICS the science of measuring the Difference of anthropometrics and Ergonomics:

size and proportions of the human body (called
While anthropometrics involves the systematic
anthropometry), especially as applied to the design
measurement of the physical properties of the
of furniture and machines.
human body (height, weight, shape, arm length,
Derives from the Greek words ‘anthropos’ (meaning etc.). Ergonomic involves incorporating
human), and ‘metron’ (meaning measure) anthropometric data. In designing products and
environments In addition to the elements.

In addition to the elements that we use in a building,

ANTHROPOMETRICS AND IMPLICATIONS TO
the dimensions of the human body also affect the
ARCHITECTURE
volume of space we require for movement, activity,
Human dimensions and capabilities are paramount in and rest. The fit between the form and dimensions
determining a building’s dimensions and overall of a space and our own body dimensions can be a
design. The underlying principle of anthropometrics static one as when we sit in a chair, lean against a
is that building designs should adapt to suit the railing, or nestle within an alcove space. There can
also be a dynamic fit as when we enter a building’s drastic changes as a species to preserve ecological
foyer, walk up a stairway, or move through the rooms balance.
and halls of a building. A third type of fit is how a
COMPARISON
space accommodates our need to maintain
appropriate social distances and to have control over ANTHROPOCENTRISM individual humans and the
our personal space. human species are seen as the most valuable

Summary: BIOCENTRISM all living things are equal inherent

value.
The statement explains that in addition to the
materials used in building, human body dimensions ECOCENTRISM environmental systems as
influence the space needed for movement, activity, wholes carry inherent value.
and rest. It describes three types of fit between body
and space:

1. **Static fit** – when a person is stationary, LESSON 3: ANTHROPOMETRICS AND ERGONOMICS

like sitting in a chair or leaning against a railing. II

2. **Dynamic fit** – when a person is moving, SPACE AND BODY

such as walking through a foyer or climbing stairs. GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE
3. **Social fit** – how a space accommodates - MASCULINE
personal and social distancing needs, allowing
control over personal space. - FEMININE

- GAY

MAN AGAINST FURNITURE EMOTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE

ANTHROPOCENTRISM literally means human- Emotional architecture is a sublime act of poetic

centered, but in its most relevant philosophical form imagination which involves the user's body and
it is the ethical belief that humans alone possess mind. Experiencing a built form does not relate only
intrinsic value. In contradistinction, all other beings to its spaces, form, and surfaces, but also in listening
hold value only in their ability to serve humans, or in to its characteristic dialogues. As a user enters a
their instrumental value. space, a space enters the user as well. The
experience is essentially the exchange and fusion of
Is the idea that the human experience is the center the object and the subject.
from which to structure and organize the wild.
SPIRIT IN ARCHITECTURE
EXAMPLES
Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our
TREATMENT OF ANIMALS - according to an spirit. “Spiritual architecture' refers to any building
anthropocentric worldview animals can hierarchically system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of
be organized with humans at the top. Human highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by
characteristics are utilized to categorize other rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at
animals. various levels and in multiple forms
EGO CONSCIOUSNESS - we continue to value human
life above ecological preservation. We fail to make
 REVIEWER

Lecture 3

LESSON 1: DIMENSION, SCALE, & Anthropomorphism

PROPORTION Derives from the verb anthropomorphize

DIMENSION Derived from the GREEK word:

A measurable extent of some kind, such as length, width, ánthrōpos - human morphē - form
depth, or height. Anthropometric measurements are noninvasive
Is a measure of extension in space that has a particular quantitative measurements of the body. According to the
direction, like height, width, and depth of a given thing Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
whereas measurement refers to the act of measuring. anthropometry provides a valuable assessment of
nutritional status in children and adults.
Refers to a measurement of things in one direction like
the length, width, height, lr depth of an object. How is anthropometric different from anthropomorphic?

MEASUREMENT anthropomorphic and anthropometric are not the same.

Anthropomorphic relates to anthropomorphism, a
Is the basic concept of study of mathematics and science. common literary device relating to animals exhibiting
human attributes, while anthropometric relates to
Quantifies the characteristics of an object or event, which
anthropometry, which is the study of human
we can compare with other things or events.
measurements and proportions.
Measurement is the most commonly used word,
WHAT IS SCALE IN ARCHITECTURAL FORM?
whenever we deal with the division of a quantity.
While proportion pertains to an ordered set of
mathematical relationships among the dimensions of a
form or space, scale refers to how we perceive or judge the
size of something in relation to something else. In dealing
with the issue of scale, therefore we are always comparing
one thing to another.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC PROPORTION

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

Is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions

to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate
tendency of human psychology.

Personification is the related attribution of human form

and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations,
emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and
weather.
LESSON 2: TWO TYPES OF SCALE MATERIAL PROPORTION

All building materials in architecture have distinct

THEORIES OF PROPORTION
properties of elasticity, hardness, and durability. And they
HUMAN SCALE is based on the dimensions and all have an ultimate strength beyond which they cannot
proportions of the human body. It has already been extend themselves without fracturing, breaking, or
mentioned in the section on anthropometric collapsing. Since the stresses in a material resulting from
proportioning that our dimensions vary from individual to the force of gravity increase with size, all materials also
individual and should not be used as an absolute have rational dimensions beyond which they cannot go.
measuring device. For example, a stone slab that is four-inches thick and
eight-feet long can be reasonably expected to support
GENERIC SCALE
itself as a bridge between two supports. But if its size were
The most commonly used scales are 2:1, 5:1, 10,1. The to increase fourfold, to sixteen-inches thick and thirty-two-
elements represented thus are larger in the plan or model feet long, it would probably collapse under its own weight.
than in reality. As in the previous type, when taking Even a strong material like steel has lengths beyond which
measurements on the drawing, we must apply the scale, it cannot span without exceeding its ultimate strength.
to calculate its extension in reality.
All materials also have rational proportions that are
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SCALE: dictated by their inherent strengths and weaknesses.
Masonry units like brick, for example, are strong in
• Association with nature compression and depend on their mass for strength. Such
• Position in space relative to the object materials are therefore volumetric in form. Materials like
• Experiences steel are strong in both compression and tension and can
• Values therefore be formed into linear columns and beams as well
• Scalar sequences as planar sheet materials. Wood, being a flexible and fairly
• Economics elastic material, can be used as linear posts and beams,
planar boards, and as a volumetric element in log cabin
construction.
Mechanical Scale: the size or proportion of something
STRUCTURAL PROPORTION
relative to an accepted standard of measurement.
In the construction of architecture, structural elements are
Visual Scale: the size or proportion an element appears to
called upon to span spaces and transmit their loads
have relative to other elements of known or assumed
through vertical supports to the foundation system of a
size.
building. The size and proportion of these elements are
directly related to the structural tasks they perform and
can therefore be visual indicators of the size and scale of
LESSON 3: THEORIES OF PROPORTION the spaces they help enclose.

PROPORTION refers to the proper or harmonious relation Beams, for example, transmit their loads horizontally
of one part to another or to the whole. This relationship across space to their vertical supports. If the span or load
may not only be one of magnitude, but also of quantity or of a beam were doubled, its bending stresses would
degree. While the designer usually has a range of choices likewise double, possibly causing it to collapse. But if its
when determining the proportions of things, some are depth were doubled, its strength would increase fourfold.
given to us by the nature. Of materials, by how building Depth, therefore, is the critical dimension of a beam and
elements respond to forces, and by how things are made. its depth-to-span ratio can be a useful indicator of its
structural role in a similar manner, columns become thicker
as their loads and unsupported height increase. Together,
beams and columns form a skeletal structural framework
that defines modules of space. By their size and proportion,
columns and beams articulate space and give it scale and a
hierarchical structure. This can be seen in the way joists are
supported by beams, which in turn are supported by
girders. Each element increases in depth as its load and
span increase in size.

MANUFACTURED PROPORTION FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Many architectural elements are sized and proportioned In mathematics, the Fibonacci sequence is a sequence in
not only according to their structural properties and which each number is the sum of the two preceding ones.
function, but also by the process through which they are Numbers that are part of the Fibonacci sequence are
manufactured. Because these elements are mass- known as Fibonacci numbers, commonly denoted Fn . The
produced in factories, they have standard sizes and sequence commonly starts from 0 and 1, although some
proportions imposed on them by the individual authors start the sequence from 1 and 1 or sometimes (as
manufacturers or by industry standards. did Fibonacci) from 1 and 2. Starting from 0 and 1, the first
few
Concrete block and common brick, for example, are
produced as modular building units. Although they differ values in the sequence are:
from each other in size, both are proportioned on a similar
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144.
basis. Plywood and other sheathing materials also are
manufactured as modular units with fixed proportions. GOLDEN SECTION
Steel sections have fixed proportions generally agreed Mathematical systems of proportion originate from the
upon by the steel manufacturers and the American Pythagorean concept of "all is number' and the belief that
Institute of Steel Construction. Windows and doors have certain numerical relationships manifest the harmonic
proportions that are set by the individual manufacturers of structure of the universe. One of these relationships that
the units. has been in use ever since the days of antiquity is the
proportion known as the Golden Section. The Greeks
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
recognized the dominating role the Golden Section played
Even considering the proportional constraints imposed on in the proportions of the human body.
a form by the nature of its material, its structural function,
Believing that both humanity and the shrines housing their
or by the manufacturing process, the designer still has the
deities should belong to a higher universal order, they
ability to control the proportion of the forms and spaces
utilized these same proportions in their temple structures.
within and around a building. The decision to make a room
Renaissance architects also explored the Golden Section in
square or oblong in plan, intimate or lofty in scale, or to
their work. In more recent times, Le Corbusier based his
endow a building with an imposing, higher-than-normal
Modulor system on the Golden Section. Its use in
façade, legitimately falls to the designer. But on what basis architecture endures even today.
are these decisions made?
The Golden Section can be defined as the ratio between
Ratio: a/b
two sections of a line, or the two dimensions of a plane
Proportion: a/b = c/d or a/b = b/c = c/d = d/e figure, in which the lesser of the two is to the greater as the
greater is to the sum of both. It can be expressed
Proportion is the equality between two ratios in which the algebraically by the equation of two ratios:
first of the four terms divided by the fourth.
MODULAR CLASSICAL ORDERS

Le Corbusier developed his proportioning system, the To the Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity, the Orders
Modulor, to order "the dimensions of that which contains represented in their proportioning of elements the perfect
and that which is contained." He saw the measuring tools expression of beauty and harmony. The basic unit of
of the Greeks, Egyptians, and other high civilizations as dimension was the diameter of the column. From this
being infinitely rich and subtle because they formed part module were derived the dimensions of the shaft, the
of the mathematics of the human body, gracious, elegant, capital, as well as the pedestal below and the entablature
and firm, the source of that harmony which moves us, above, down to the smallest detail.
beauty." He therefore based his measuring tool, the Intercolumniation— the system of spacing between
Modulor, on both mathematics (the aesthetic dimensions columns — was also based on the diameter of the column.
of the Golden Section and the Fibonacci Series), and the
proportions of the human body (functional dimensions).
Because the sizes of columns varied according to the
Le Corbusier began his study in 1942, and published The extent of a building, the Orders were not based on a fixed
Modulor: A Harmonious Measure to the Human Scale unit of measurement. Rather, the intention was to ensure
Universally Applicable to Architecture and Mechanics in that all of the parts of any one building were proportionate
1948. A second volume, Modulor Il, was published in 1954. and in harmony with one another.

Le Corbusier saw the Modulor not merely as a series of Vitruvius, in the time of Augustus, studied actual examples
numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of of the Orders and presented his ideal proportions for each
measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and in his treatise, The Ten Books on Architecture. Vignola
volumes, and "maintain the human scale everywhere." It recodified these rules for the Italian Renaissance and his
could lend itself to an infinity of combinations; it ensures forms for the Orders are probably the best known today.
unity with diversity... the miracle of numbers."
VITRUVIUS rules for the diameter, height, and spacing of
columns
REGULATING LINES

If the diagonals of two rectangles are either parallel or

perpendicular to each other, they indicate that the two
rectangles have similar proportions. These diagonals, as
well as lines that indicate the common alignment of
elements, are called regulating lines.

They were seen previously in the discussion of the Golden

Section, but they can also be used to control the proportion
and placement of elements in other proportioning systems
as well. Le Corbusier, in Towards a New Architecture, stated
the following:

"A regulating line is an assurance against capriciousness; it

is a means of verification which can ratify all work created
in fervour ... It confers on the work the quality of rhythm.
The regulating line brings in this tangible form of
mathematics which gives the reassuring perception of
order. The choice of a regulating line fixes the fundamental
geometry of the work... It is a means to an end; it is not a
recipe."
KEN

The traditional Japanese unit of measure, the shaku, was

originally imported from China. It is almost equivalent to
the English foot and divisible into decimal units. Another
unit of measure, the ken, was introduced in the latter half
of Japan's Middle Ages.
Although it was originally used simply to designate the
interval between two columns and varied in size, the ken
was soon standardized for residential archi-tecture. Unlike
the module of the Classical Orders, which was based on the
diameter of a column and varied with the size of a building,
the ken became an absolute measurement.
The ken, however, was not only a measurement for the
construction of buildings. It evolved into an aesthetic
module that ordered the structure, materials, and space of
Japanese architecture.

RELATIVE PROPORTION

Art and architecture must deal with relative proportion,

and this presupposes a unit of measure that is very human
in origin.

ABSOLUTE PROPORTION

Measure must be understood, first of all, not in terms of

arithmetic, but in terms of the dimensions and the
practical, functional energy of the human body. Pure
geometry can exist without considerations of size or
measure, since it deals only with absolute proportion.

If you need to demonstrate actual values or subtle

differences, use absolute measurements. If you want to
emphasize proportions, trends, or how data points relate
to a common baseline, use relative (percentage)
measurements.
 REVIEWER

Lecture 4

HIERARCHY the articulation of the importance or

LESSON 1: BALANCE AND significance of a form or space by its size, shape, or
placement relative to the other forms and spaces of the
GRAVITATIONAL CURVE organization.
BALANCE

provides stability and structure to a design by placing the RHYTHM A unifying movement characterized by a
elements in such a way that the visual weight, in terms of patterned repetition or alternation of formal elements or
objects, colors, textures and space, is distributed, i.e. motifs in the same or a modified form.
symmetry. For example a large positioned close to the
centre can be balanced by a small shape close to the edge.

DATUM A line, plane, or volume that, by its continuity and

regularity, serves to gather, measure, and organize a
GRAVITATIONAL CURVE pattern of forms and spaces.
Is the curvature of space time.

Gravity is the curvature of the universe, caused by massive TRANSFORMATION The principle that an architectural
bodies, which determines the path that object travel. The concept, structure, or organization can be altered through
curvature is dynamical, moving as those objects move. a series of discrete manipulations and permutations in
response to a specific context or set of conditions without
a loss of identity or concept.
What is Balance and Gravitational curve in architecture?

Balance - equal distribution of weight. -concerned with the

distribution of visual interest.

Gravitational - natural tendency toward some point or Balance is an even use of elements throughout a work of
object of incluence. art.

Symmetry is a very formal type of balance consisting of

mirroring of portions of an image.
ORDERING PRINCIPLES

AXIS a line established by two points inspace, about

which forms and spaces can be arranged in a symmetrical LESSON 2: THREE TYPES OF BALANCE
or balanced manner.
SYMMETRICAL BALANCE (CENTER)

Means that the work of art is the same on one side as the
SYMMETRY the balanced distribution and arrangement of other, a mirror image of itself, on both sides of a center
equivalent forms and spaces on opposite sides of a line
dividing line or plane or about a center or axis.
Symmetrical Balance (CENTRAL) LESSON 4: VISUAL ACUITY AND
Is achieved in works of art when visual elements are
arranged both sides of a center line in equal weight. PERCEPTION
Symmetrical balance (FORMAL) VISUAL ACUITY (VA) is a measure of the ability of the eye
to distinguish shales and the details of object at a given
is achieved in work of art when visual elements are
distance.
arranged on both sides of a center line in equal weight.
Symmetrical balance, also called formal balance, can be
thought of as a mirror image of one half of a work of art on
PERCEPTION is the ability to see, hear, or become aware of
the other half.
something through the senses.
Symmetrical Balance (RADIAL)

Radial balance is symmetry in several directions. Visual

SPACIAL PERCEPTION involves not one but many specific
elements are arranged around a central point in the
abilities. Within the visual domain these include locating
composition, like the spokes on a bicycle wheel. Often,
points in space, determining the orientation of lines and
radially balanced designs are circular.
objects, assessing location in depth, appreciating
Unsymmetrical Balance geometric relations between objects, and processing
motion, including motion in depth.
Asymmetrical balance is when you have two dissimilar
sides of a design and have positioned visual weight
unequally, and yet you've still achieved a sense of balance.
It evokes a sense of modernism and movement. STERIOSCOPIC VISION describes the ability of the visual
brain to register a sense of three-dimensional shape and
Gravitational Balance
form from visual inputs. In current usage, stereoscopic
Demonstrates the existence of gravitational forces vision often refers uniquely to the sense of depth derived
between masses from the two eyes.

Gravitational. -natural tendency toward some point or

object of influence
1. We have learned that objects that are partially hidden
are behind other

objects. Therefore, you perceive that columns which

LESSON 3: TWO TYPES OF SYMMETRY
obscuring other
There are two fundamental types of symmetry:
columns are closer to you.
1. BILATERAL SYMMETRY refers to the balanced
2. The perceived object size is also a clue. A larger object is
arrangement of similar or equivalent elements on opposite
perceived to
sides of a median axis so that only one plane can divide the
whole into essentially identical halves. be closer to the viewer than a similar but smaller object.

3. The phenomenon of linear perspective: the columns

converge at the
2. RADIAL SYMMETRY refers to the balanced arrangement
of similar, radiating elements such that the composition end of the hall but are perceived as “parallel but further
can be divided into similar halves by passing a plane at any away”.
angle around a centerpoint or along a central axis
4. The position of the shadow of an object, or objects
located in the

shadow, give additional spatial information.

KINESTHETIC VISION in human sensory: kinesthetic
(motion) sense. Even with the eyes closed, one is aware of
the positions of his legs and arms and can percieve the
movement of a limb and its direction, the term kinesthesis
(“feeling of motion”) has been coined for this sensibility.

FIGURE GROUND is defined as human’s ability to visually

differentiate between an object an its background. When
humans percieve a visual image, they tend to simplify it by
seperating it into figure and ground. The target object
becomes the observer’s main focus, both visually and
mentally.

Gestalt: objects observed have innate qualities that make

them independent of the perceiver and the environment.

The theory or doctrine that physiological or psychological

phenomenon do not occur through the summation of
individual elements, as reflexes or sensations, but through
gestalts functioning separately or inter-relatedly.

REVERSIBLE FIGURE is an ambiguous two-dimensional

drawing that represents a three-dimensional object in such
a way that it can be seen from two different perspectives.