Introduction to

Computer science
Lecture 2
 The System Unit:
Processing and Memory
Data and Program Representation
● In order to be understood by a computer, data and programs need to be
represented appropriately.
● Coding systems: Used to represent data and programs in a manner
understood by the computer.
● Digital computers: Can only understand two states, off and on (0 and 1).
● Digital data representation: The process of representing data in digital form
so it can be understood by a computer.

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 Digital Data Representation
• Bit: The smallest unit of data that a binary computer
can recognize (a single 1 or 0)
● Byte = 8 bits
● Byte terminology used to express the size of
documents and other files, programs, etc.
● Prefixes are often used to express larger quantities of
bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB),
petabyte (PB), exabyte (EB),
terabyte (TB),
zettabyte (ZB), yottabyte (YB).

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Data and Program Representation
Representing Numerical Data
● Representing Numerical Data: The Binary Numbering System
○ Numbering system
■ A way of representing numbers
○ Decimal numbering system
■ Uses 10 symbols (0-9)
○ Binary numbering system
■ Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible numbers
○ In both systems, the position of the digits determines the power to which the base
number (such as 10 or 2) is raised

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 Coding Systems for Text-Based Data
• ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange):

coding system traditionally used with

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Inside the System Unit

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 Basic Computer Hardware components
● Computer chip: A very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting material
onto which integrated circuits are embedded
● Circuit board: A thin board containing computer chips and other electronic
components
● Motherboard or system board: The main circuit board inside the system unit
○ All devices must connect to the motherboard
○ External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers) typically connect by
plugging into a port exposed through the exterior of the system unit
○ Wireless devices connect through a transceiver or wireless networking
technology (like Bluetooth)

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Ports
Plugs
The CPU
● Central processing unit (CPU): circuitry and components packaged together and connected
directly to the motherboard
○ Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
○ Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking about personal computers
● Dual-core CPU: Contains the processing components (cores) of two separate processors on a
single CPU
● Quad-core CPU: Contains 4 cores
● Typically different CPUs for desktop computers, portable computers, servers, mobile devices,
consumer devices, etc.
● Often made by Intel or AMD

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The CPU

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The CPU

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 Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth
● Bus: An electronic path over which data can
travel
● Bus width: The number of wires in the bus
over which data can travel
● Bus width and speed determine the
throughput (or bandwidth) of the bus
○ The amount of data that can be
transferred by the bus in a given time
period

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 Word Size and Cache Memory
● Word size: The amount of data that a CPU can manipulate at one time
○ Typically 32 or 64 bits
● Cache memory: Special group of very fast memory chips located on or close
to the CPU
○ Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
○ More cache memory typically means faster processing
○ Usually internal cache (built into the CPU)
○ Often some cache dedicated to each core; may also have some shared
cache accessible by any core

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 Memory
● Memory refers to chip based storage
● RAM (random access memory): Computer’s main memory
○ Consists of chips arrange on a circuit board called a memory
module plugged into the motherboard
○ Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and data
the computer is currently using
○ Adequate RAM is needed to run programs
○ Volatile: Contents of RAM is lost when the computer is shut off
○ Most personal computers use SD-RAM (Synchronous dynamic
random-access memory)
○ MRAM and PRAM: non-volatile RAM under development

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Inside the System Unit
■ Each location in memory has an address
● Each location typically holds one
byte
● Computer system sets up and
maintains directory tables to
facilitate retrieval of the data

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Memory
● Registers: High-speed memory built into the CPU; used by the CPU
● ROM (read-only memory): Non-volatile chips located on the motherboard into
which data or programs have been permanently stored
○ Retrieved by the computer when needed
○ Being replaced with flash memory for firmware
● Flash memory: Type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased and
reprogrammed
○ Some flash memory chips are used by the computer
○ Flash memory chips are also used in flash memory storage media
(sticks, cards, and drives)

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 Quick Quiz
1. Which type of memory is erased when the power goes out?
a. ROM
b. RAM
c. flash memory
2. True or False: The CPU can also be called the motherboard.
3. A(n) electronic path within a computer over which data travels is called a(n)
_____________.
Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) bus

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 How the CPU Works
● CPU: Consists of a variety of circuitry and components packaged together
○ Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
■ Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch controlling
the flow of electrons inside a chip
● Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors; the number doubles
about every 18 months (Moore’s Law)

Transistor

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Typical CPU Components

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 How the CPU Works
● Typical CPU Components
○ Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
■ Performs arithmetic involving integers and logical
operations
○ Floating Point Unit (FPU)
■ Performs decimal arithmetic
○ Control Unit
■ Coordinates and controls activities within a CPU core
○ Prefetch Unit
■ Attempts to retrieve data and instructions before they are
needed for processing in order to avoid delays

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 How the CPU Works
○ Decode Unit
■ Translates instructions from the Pre-fetch unit so they are understood by the
control unit, ALU, and FPU
○ Registers and Internal Cache Memory
■ Store data and instructions needed by the CPU
○ Bus Interface Unit
■ Allows the core to communicate with other CPU components

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 The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
● Machine cycle: The series of operations involved in the execution of a single machine level
instruction
○ Fetch: The program instruction is fetched
○ Decode: The instructions are decoded so the control unit, ALU, and FPU (Floating-
Point Unit )can understand them
○ Execute: The instructions are
carried out
○ Store: The original data or the
result from the ALU or FPU
execution is stored in the CPU’s
registers

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 Processing Speed
● CPU clock speed: One measurement of processing speed
○ Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
○ Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second

● Other factors (CPU architecture, memory, bus speed, amount of RAM, etc.)
also affect the overall processing speed of a computer

● Benchmark tests: Can be used to evaluate overall processing speed

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 The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
● System clock: Timing mechanism within the computer system that synchronizes the
computer’s operations
○ Each signal is a cycle
○ Number of cycles per second = hertz (Hz)
○ Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
○ Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the system clock
■ For instance, with a CPU clock speed of 2 GHz, the CPU clock “ticks” 10
times during each system clock tick
○ During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of microcode are processed

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Pipelining

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Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the
Future
○ Pipelining
■ Allows multiple instructions to be processed at one time
○ Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing
■ Use multiple processors to speed up processing

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Future Trends
● Nanotechnology: The science of creating tiny computers and components less than 100
nanometers in size Future applications may be built by working at the individual atomic
and molecular levels

● Optical computer: Uses light, such as from laser beams or infrared beams, to perform
digital computations

● Cloud Computing

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Thank You