Chapter 2

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 Inelastic Interactions
If a part of the energy that an electron
carries is transferred to the sample,
several processes might take part and the
following signals might be generated:
1- Inner-shell ionisation
2- Braking radiation
(“Bremsstrahlung”)
3- Secondary electrons
4- Phonons
5- Plasmons
6- Cathodoluminescence

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 Inner-Shell Ionization
The incident electron that travels through the
electron cloud of an atom might transfer a part of its
energy to an electron localized in any of the atom’s
electron shells. By a certain minimum amount of
energy up-taken (so-called threshold energy), this
electron is promoted to the lowest unoccupied electron
level, e.g. in the valence band or the conduction band.
If the transferred energy is sufficient to eject the
electron into the vacuum, the atom is ionized because it
carries a surplus positive charge then. In this respect,
the energy transfer to an electron of an inner shell is
particularly important because the

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 Inner-Shell Ionization
resulting electronic state of the generated ion is
energetically unstable: an inner shell with a low energy
has an electron vacancy whereas the levels of higher
energy are fully occupied. To achieve the energetically
favorable ground state again, an electron drops down
from a higher level to fill the vacancy. By this process,
the atom can relax but the excess energy has to be given
away. This excess energy of the electron, which dropped
to a lower state, corresponds to the difference between the
energy levels. The process for getting rid of the additional
energy is the generation either of a characteristic X-ray or
of an Auger electron.

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 Auger electrons
An alternative mechanism for the relaxation of an
ionized atom is the generation of an Auger
electron .The first step, the ionization of the
atom, occurs in analogy to that of the X-ray
emission, leaving a vacancy in an inner shell.
Again, this energetically unstable electron
configuration is overcome by filling the vacancy
with an electron dropping from a higher shell.

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 Auger electrons
energy of that electron is transferred to a
further electron that might get enough
energy to be ejected. This ejected electron
is designated as Auger electron.

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 Inner-shell ionization:
Production of X-ray or Auger e-

HV electron knocks inner shell (K here) electron out

of its orbit (time=1). This is an unstable configuration,
and an electron from a higher energy orbital (L here)
‘falls in’ to fill the void (time=2). There is an excess
of energy present and this is released internally as a
photon. The photon has 2 ways to exit the atom
(time=3), either by ejecting another outer shell
electron as an Auger electron, or as X-ray.

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 Inner-shell ionization:
Production of X-ray or Auger e-
Time
K shell
(=photoelectron)

1 L shell

Blue Lines indicate

2 subsequent times: 1 to
2, then 3 where there
are 2 alternate
outcomes

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 Delta rays

• Delta rays are often formed along the

ionization tracks of beta particles
because some of the ionized electrons are
ejected from target atoms with so much
energy that they can ionize other target
atoms.

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 Braking radiation

An electron passing
an atom within its
electron cloud may
be decelerated by the
Coulomb force of
the nucleus.

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Braking radiation

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 Braking radiation

is electromagnetic radiation produced by

the acceleration of a charged particle,
such as an electron, when deflected by
another charged particle, such as an
atomic nucleus. The term is also used to
refer to the process of producing the
radiation. Bremsstrahlung has a
continuous spectrum.
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 Cherenkove Radiation

High speed beta particles can cause

the emission of visible radiation with
blue tint that is called cherenkov
radiation.

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 Cherenkove Radiation
Cherenkov Radiation is caused by a charged particle
passing through a medium (which must be dielectric, or
electrically polarizable) faster than the speed of light in
that medium. When this occurs the traveling particle
disrupts the electromagnetic field in that medium, which
then causes the molecules in that medium to become
electrically polarized. In an insulator, photons are emitted
when the molecules drop back to their ground state.
Normally these photons experience destructive
interference and are more difficult to detect, however
when the charged particle disrupting the medium passes
through faster than the speed of light in that medium, the
photons begin to constructively interfere, and intensify the
observed effects of the radiation.
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 Phonons
Phonons are collective oscillations of the atoms in a
crystal lattice and can be initiated by an up-take of
energy from the electron beam. If an incident electron
hits onto an atom and transfers a part of its energy to
it, this atom begins to vibrate. Since all atoms are
linked together in a crystal, the vibration of an atom is
felt by others that also start to vibrate. By this, the
absorbed energy is distributed over a large volume.
These collective vibrations are equivalent to heating
up the sample. Phonons can be generated as main or
as by-product of any inelastic electron-matter
interaction.

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 Phonons
phonon is a quantum of energy, relating to a
mode of vibration occurring in a rigid crystal
lattice, such as the atomic lattice of a solid.

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 Phonons

If the sample is sensitive towards heat,

beam damage might occur and destroy
or modify at least a part of the original
sample structure. In such cases,
cooling of the sample is advisable to
minimize such unwanted effects.

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 Plasmons
If the electron beam passes through an
assembly of free electrons, like in the
conduction band of metals, the transfer of
energy can induce collective oscillations
inside the electron gas that are called
plasmons. They can occur in any material
with free or weakly bound electron and are
the most frequent inelastic interaction in
metals.

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 Plasmons

Are collective oscillations of

the free electron gas density

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 Cathodoluminescence
If a semiconductor is hit by an electron beam,
electron-hole pairs will be generated. By the energy
obtained from the incident electron, an electron in the
valence band can be promoted to the conduction band
.The result is a so-called electron-hole pair. This
excited state of the semiconductor is energetically
instable, and the material can relax by filling this
electron hole by an electron dropping down from the
conduction band. This process, leads to the emission
of a photon carrying the difference energy E = hυ.

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 Cathodoluminescence
This energy corresponds to that of the band
gap. For semiconductors, the band gap
energy is in the range up to a few eV,
typically around 1 eV, and, as the result, the
wavelength of the emitted photon is in the
range of visible light.

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 Cathodoluminescence

This is of practical importance in semiconductor research, as

measuring the wavelength of the cathodoluminescence is a
means to determine band gaps.
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 Electron Beam Therapy (EBT)
Is a kind of external beam radiotherapy where
electrons are directed to a tumour site.

Megavoltage electron beam represent an important

treatment modality in radiotherapy, which providing
a unique option in the treatment superficial tumours.

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Electron Beam Therapy (EBT)

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 Electron Beam Therapy (EBT)
Electron Beam Therapy (EBT) is a type of external beam
radiation therapy that uses a beam of high-energy electrons to treat
cancer and other diseases. Unlike X-rays or photons, which
penetrate deep into the body, electrons deposit most of their
energy near the surface and then rapidly lose intensity with depth.
This property makes EBT especially useful for treating superficial
tumors, such as skin cancers, head and neck tumors, or chest wall
recurrences after breast cancer, while minimizing radiation
exposure to deeper healthy tissues and organs. The electron beam
is produced by a linear accelerator (linac), which accelerates
electrons to energies typically between 4 and 20 MeV.

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Electron Beam Therapy (EBT)

The physician can adjust the beam energy to

control how deeply the electrons penetrate,
tailoring treatment to the location and thickness of
the tumor.

Electron Beam Therapy is ideal for tumors within

4–5 cm depth, delivering high dose to the surface
while sparing deeper healthy tissues.

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 Advantages of Electron Beam Therapy

1- Superficial Targeting

o Electrons deliver most of their energy near the surface

(within a few centimeters), making them ideal for skin
cancers, chest wall recurrences, and other shallow tumors.
2- Sparing Deeper Organs

o Rapid dose fall-off beyond the tumor reduces radiation

exposure to deeper healthy tissues and organs.
3- Adjustable Depth of Penetration

o Beam energy can be selected (typically 4–20 MeV) to

control how deep the electrons go, allowing tailored
treatment.
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 Advantages of Electron Beam Therapy
4- Homogeneous Dose Distribution

o Electrons provide an even dose across the treated

surface, which is useful for irregular or wide
areas like scars or chest walls.
5- Non-invasive & Outpatient

o Like other external beam radiotherapies,

treatments are painless and usually given on an
outpatient basis.

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 Limitations of Electron Beam Therapy

1- Limited Depth of Penetration

o Electrons are not effective for deep-seated tumors

(e.g., lung, prostate, or brain), since the dose falls off
quickly after a few centimeters.

2- Dose Inhomogeneity at Depth

o While the surface dose is uniform, the deeper

layers can have “hot” and “cold” spots due to
the scattering nature of electrons.

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Limitations of Electron Beam Therapy
3- Difficulty with Complex Shapes
•Tumors with irregular 3D shapes or located around curved
surfaces may be harder to treat precisely with electrons alone.
4- Less Availability of Specialized Equipment
•Requires a linear accelerator with electron capability and
proper applicators, which may not be available in all treatment
centers.

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Limitations of Electron Beam Therapy

5- Not a Standalone Solution for Many Cancers

Usually combined with photon (X-ray) therapy

when both superficial and deeper tumor
components need treatment.

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 Comparison Between Electron Therapy
and Photon Therapy
Table 1. Comparison between electron and photon therapy

Feature Electron Therapy Photon Therapy

Type of Uses high-energy electrons Uses high-energy photons
radiation (negatively charged particles) (X-rays or gamma rays,
uncharged)
Penetration hallow penetration (few Deep penetration, suitable for
depth centimeters). Best for tumors deep inside the body
superficial tumors
Dose Rapid dose fall-off beyond the Dose continues deeper →
distribution tumor → spares deeper tissues affects both tumor and
normal tissues
Main clinical kin cancers, chest wall after Brain tumors, prostate cancer,
use mastectomy, superficial lymph lung cancer, head & neck
nodes cancers
Advantages Precise for surface lesions, Treats tumors at any depth,
protects deep organs. versatile and widely used.

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Comparison Between Electron Therapy
and Photon Therapy

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