Tutorial Questions & Answers: Materials &

Manufacturing Technology

Part 1: Mechanical Properties of Materials

1. Differentiate between Engineering Stress and

True Stress. Why does the True Stress-strain curve
continue to increase until fracture, while the
Engineering Stress-strain curve peaks and then
drops?
Answer:

 Engineering Stress is calculated using the original cross-sectional

area of the specimen (σ_e = F/A_o).
 True Stress is calculated using the instantaneous cross-sectional
area (σ = F/A).
 The Engineering Stress curve peaks and drops because it does not
account for the significant reduction in cross-sectional area
(necking) that occurs after the ultimate tensile strength. The
decreasing area means that less force is required to continue
deformation, even though the material is actually getting stronger
per unit area.
 The True Stress curve increases continuously because it reflects the
increasing stress required to deform the material as it strain
hardens and its cross-sectional area decreases. It provides a more
realistic representation of the material's deformation resistance.

2. What is "Strain Hardening" and how is it

mathematically represented in the plastic region?
Answer:

 Strain Hardening (or work hardening) is the phenomenon where a

metal becomes stronger and harder as it is plastically deformed.
This is because dislocation density increases, impeding further
dislocation motion.
 In the plastic region, the relationship between true stress (σ) and
true strain (ε) is given by the Flow Curve equation:
 σ = Kε^n
where K is the strength coefficient and n is the strain hardening
exponent. A higher 'n' value indicates a greater capacity for strain
hardening.

3. Explain the concept of "Average Flow Stress" and

its significance in metal forming analysis.
Answer:

 The Average Flow Stress (Ȳ_f) is the average value of stress over
the stress-strain curve from the beginning of strain to the final
(maximum) strain value achieved during a deformation process.
 It is significant because it allows for the simplification of force and
power calculations in metal forming processes. Instead of
integrating the entire flow curve, engineers can use this average
value to estimate the required deformation force.
 It is calculated as: Ȳ_f = (Kε^n)/(1+n)

Part 2: Metal Forming Fundamentals

4. Compare and contrast Cold Working, Warm

Working, and Hot Working under the following
headings: Temperature Range, Advantages, and
Disadvantages.
Answer:

Feature Cold Working Warm Working Hot Working

Temperatur 0.3T_m to 0.5T_m to

≤ 0.3T_m
e Range 0.5T_m 0.75T_m

Advantages Good accuracy, Lower forces Very large

surface finish, than cold deformations
high strength working, more possible, low
from strain complex forces required,
hardening, no shapes no strain
heating possible, hardening,
Feature Cold Working Warm Working Hot Working

reduced need isotropic

for annealing properties

High Poor surface finish

forces/power (scale), lower
required, limited Higher energy dimensional
Disadvanta
ductility, strain than cold accuracy, high
ges
hardening may working energy
require consumption,
annealing shorter tool life

5. What is "Strain Rate Sensitivity" and why is it

particularly important in hot working operations?
Answer:

 Strain Rate Sensitivity describes how the flow stress of a material

changes with the rate at which it is deformed (ε̇).
 It is modeled by: Y_f = Cε̇^m, where m is the strain rate sensitivity
exponent.
 It is crucial in hot working because at high temperatures, the flow
stress becomes highly dependent on strain rate. As the strain rate
increases (e.g., in a high-speed forging press), the deformation
resistance (Y_f) increases dramatically. This means the equipment
must be powerful enough to handle these high-strain-rate
conditions. At room temperature, the effect of strain rate is
negligible.

6. Describe the functions of lubrication in metal

forming.
Answer: Lubrication in metal forming serves several key functions:

 Reduces friction: This lowers the forces and power required for
deformation
 Reduces tool wear: Extends the life of expensive dies and molds
 Improves surface finish: Minimizes galling and sticking between
the workpiece and the tool
  Acts as a coolant: Helps carry away heat generated by plastic
deformation and friction
 Controls metal flow: Helps ensure the metal flows smoothly into
the desired shape

Part 3: Bulk Deformation Processes

7. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe the "no-

slip point" (neutral point) in flat rolling. What is
"forward slip"?
Answer:

 In flat rolling, the surface speed of the rolls (v_r) is greater than the
entry speed of the sheet (v_o) and less than the exit speed (v_f)
 The No-Slip Point is the single point along the contact arc where
the velocity of the workpiece equals the velocity of the rolls. To the
left of this point, the rolls move faster than the workpiece (slipping
occurs). To the right, the workpiece moves faster than the rolls
 Forward Slip (s) is a measure of this phenomenon and is defined
as:
s = (v_f - v_r)/v_r
 (A sketch would show a sheet entering and exiting two rolls, with
velocity vectors v_o < v_r < v_f, and the no-slip point marked on the
contact arc)

8. List the three basic types of forging operations

and explain the key difference between them
concerning metal flow.
Answer:

1. Open-Die Forging: Work is compressed between two flat dies.

Metal flow is largely unconstrained and can flow freely in a lateral
direction
2. Impression-Die Forging: The die contains a cavity. Metal flow
is constrained by the die walls, forcing excess metal to flow out
as flash
3. Flashless Forging: The workpiece is completely confined within
the die. There is no flash, and the starting volume of the workpiece
must be precisely controlled to match the die cavity volume
9. Differentiate between Direct (Forward) Extrusion
and Indirect (Backward) Extrusion. What is the main
advantage of indirect extrusion?
Answer:

 In Direct Extrusion, the billet is stationary relative to the

container, and the ram forces the material to flow through the die.
There is significant friction between the billet and the container wall
 In Indirect Extrusion, the die is mounted on the ram. As the ram
moves, the die pushes into the billet, forcing the material to flow in
the opposite direction through the die. The billet has no relative
motion against the container
 The main advantage of indirect extrusion is that it requires lower
ram force because it eliminates the frictional force between the
billet and the container wall

10. What are the common defects in extruded

products? Briefly describe "Piping" and
"Centerburst".
Answer: Common defects include Piping, Centerburst, and Surface
Cracking

 Piping: A sink hole that forms at the end of the billet in direct
extrusion. It is caused by the metal flow pattern pulling
contaminants and oxidized material from the surface toward the
centerline as the billet end approaches
 Centerburst: An internal crack that occurs along the centerline of
the extrudate. It is caused by excessive tensile stresses at the
centerline, which can happen with high die angles or low extrusion
ratios, where the outer material pulls away from the center

Part 4: Sheet Metalworking

11. Describe the four distinct regions of a sheared

edge in sheet metal cutting (e.g., blanking or
punching).
Answer:
 1. Rollover: A smooth, rounded region at the top caused by initial
plastic deformation as the punch first contacts the sheet
2. Burnish: A smooth, vertical region just below the rollover caused by
the penetration of the punch into the material. It results from
contact and rubbing against the die wall
3. Fractured Zone: A relatively rough, granular surface that results
from the crack propagating from the punch and die edges until
separation occurs
4. Burr: A sharp, protruding edge at the bottom of the sheared edge
caused by the plastic elongation of the metal just before final
fracture

12. In sheet metal blanking and punching, how do

you determine the punch and die sizes for a desired
hole diameter (D_h) and blank diameter (D_b)?
Answer: The determination is based on the clearance (c)

 For producing a hole (punching):

o Punch diameter = D_h
o Die diameter = D_h + 2c
o The punch determines the hole size
 For producing a blank (blanking):
o Punch diameter = D_b - 2c
o Die diameter = D_b
o The die determines the blank size

13. What is "Springback" in sheet metal bending?

How can it be compensated for?
Answer:

 Springback is the elastic recovery of the material after the bending

load is removed. It causes the final bend angle of the part to be
smaller than the angle of the tool (for air bending)
 It can be compensated for by:
o Overbending: Designing the punch and die with a smaller
included angle than the desired final part angle, so the part
springs back to the correct shape
o Bottoming: Applying high pressure at the end of the stroke
to plastically deform the material in the bend region, reducing
elastic recovery
Part 5: Plastics Processing

14. What is the fundamental difference between a

Thermoplastic and a Thermosetting Polymer in
terms of molecular structure and response to heat?
Give an example of each.
Answer:

 Thermoplastics have linear or branched polymer chains that do

not form covalent bonds with adjacent chains. They soften when
heated and harden when cooled, and this cycle is reversible.
Example: Polyethylene, Polypropylene
 Thermosets have a 3D network structure formed by cross-links
between polymer chains. Upon heating, they undergo a chemical
change (curing) and become permanently rigid. They do not
soften upon reheating and will instead degrade. Example: Epoxies,
Phenolics

15. Describe the three main sections of an extruder

screw and their respective functions.
Answer:

1. Feed Section: Near the hopper. Its function is to convey the solid
polymer pellets forward and preheat them
2. Compression Section (Transition Section): The root diameter of
the screw increases. This section compacts the material, melts it,
and pushes out any trapped air
3. Metering Section: Has a constant, shallow root diameter. Its
function is to homogenize the melt, generate sufficient pressure to
pump it through the die, and ensure a consistent flow rate

16. Name the two main units of an Injection Molding

machine and briefly describe their functions.
Answer:

1. Injection Unit:
o Function: To heat the plastic material to a molten state and
then inject it under high pressure into the mold cavity
 oComponents: Hopper, barrel, heater bands, and a
reciprocating screw that acts as both a mixer/plastificator and
a ram
2. Clamping Unit:
o Function: To hold the two halves of the mold closed with
sufficient force to resist the high injection pressure, and to
open and close the mold at the appropriate times in the cycle

17. What is the primary function of a "Screen Pack"

and a "Breaker Plate" located before the die in an
extruder?
Answer:

 Screen Pack: A series of wire meshes that filters out contaminants

and hard, un-melted particles from the polymer melt
 Breaker Plate: A strong metal plate that supports the screen pack.
It also helps to straighten the swirling flow of the polymer melt
coming from the screw, removing its "memory" of the rotational
motion

18. List THREE key design guidelines for a part to be

manufactured by Injection Molding.
Answer: (Any three of the following)

 Uniform Wall Thickness: Avoids warping, sink marks, and

differential cooling
 Generous Radii and Fillets: Reduces stress concentrations and
improves material flow
 Draft Angles: Essential on walls parallel to the mold opening
direction to facilitate part ejection
 Use of Ribs: For increasing stiffness without resorting to thick,
problematic wall sections
 Consideration of Tolerances: Be aware that shrinkage can vary,
so generous tolerances are advisable