Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1.​ Analyze the impact of IT on aviation and air travelers;

2.​ Explain how airline reservation systems work and how they connect with other
information systems;
3.​ Understand how information systems support management decision-making in
airlines;
4.​ examine how information technologies are used by airports to streamline to
passenger experience; and
5.​ evaluate the present and future information technology applications in airport
operations.

Aviation and Information Technology

INTRODUCTION
Travelers in developed countries often
take air travel for granted, but the
business of putting planes in the sky is
complex human endeavor. This
complexity arises because airlines and
airports operate in environments that are
sensitive to geopolitical, economic,
technological, and environmental
change. Aviation also involves many
stakeholders – government authorities,
international organizations, employees,
travelers and residents. The operation of
airlines and airports is logistically
complex, requiring the expertise of
engineers, accountants, IT specialists, managers, meteorologists, environmental
scientists and pilots, to name a few.
Although human interactions are critical, this complexity creates a heavy reliance on
information systems and other technologies (Oyewole et al., 2008). It is worth remembering
that flying “heavier- than-air” machine was accomplished just 120 years ago thanks to the
industrial revolution and human ingenuity. In 2017, over 4 billion passengers flew on
international and domestic airlines and 3.5% of the global economy relied on aviation
(International Air Transport Association, 2018). It is estimated that by 2034, 6.9 billion
passengers will fly annually, and the global airline fleet will be more than double the 21, 600
aircraft in service in 2014 (Air Transport Action Group, 2016). The modern aviation industry
would not be possible without the use of technology to design and build aircraft, sells seats
and ensure the safety of travelers. In this chapter we examine how IT is supporting the
operations of the airlines and airports.
TYPES OF AIRLINES
Airlines are, arguably, the most intensive users of IT in tourism. The operation of an
airline requires many sophisticated systems to deliver a satisfying and safe travel experience
while maximizing profitability and sustainability. Since the mid-1980s, the airline industries of
many countries have been deregulated and privatized, and ownership of some national
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

airlines has transferred to public or private companies, creating opportunities for new airlines
to enter the market. Generally, airlines can be divided into the following categories:

1.​ National flag carriers: many governments, particularly in the Asia-Pacific, the
Middle East, Africa and Latin America, continue to own a stake in their national
airline. Examples include a Air India, Air New Zealand and Aerolìnes Argentinas.
These airlines provide service for tax payers’ benefit, are often heavily subsidized by
governments, serve routes that would others be unprofitable, and use IT less
extensively.

2.​ Commercial airlines: a mix of new airlines and older, established

non-government-owned airlines or flag carriers that were privatized. Examples
include British Airways, Qantas and Lufthansa. Deregulation in developed countries
has allowed new carriers to emerge. Examples include Virginia Atlantic, Delta and
Eva Air. Many commercial airlines were involved in the development of global
distributions system (GDSs) and have been benefited by sharing technological
innovations with alliances partners.

3.​ Low-cost carriers (LCCs): these airlines keep base fares low and charge extra for
food, priority boarding, set allocation and baggage. This is a “user pay” business
model and examples include Ryanair, AirAsia X, Spring Airlines. LCC airlines use IT
to automate processes, improve efficiency and reduce operating costs.

4.​ Charter airlines: charter airlines lease aircraft for itineraries such as packaged tours
that travelers purchase through a tour operator. Cruise lines, sports teams,
governments and the military also use charter airlines. Examples includes TUI
Airlines and Thomas Cook Airlines but some scheduled airlines also offer charter
services. To be viable, charter flights usually operate a near-100% seat occupancy. IT
solutions facilitate the scheduling and booking of entire aircraft or a block of seats.

AIRLINE USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Airlines use of IT for a wide range of applications at all stage of the tourist
experience, including marketing, distribution, customer service and operations. In fact,
modern airlines would not exist without IT to ensure the efficient distribution and safe
operation of flights. Figure 7.1 provides an overview of these key IT solutions.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Figure 7.1. Key information technologies used by airlines.

The Airlines Reservation Systems (ARS) is at the core of most modern airline of Decision Support
Systems (DSS) and Departure Control Systems (DCS) to ensure that reservations and passenger
processing are handled efficiently. In Chapter 3 we explored how travel intermediaries and the GDSs
interface with these systems to support the booking of travel products. Most airlines also rely heavily
on information systems to support marketing and customer relationship management (CRM). All of
these systems are usually integrated and offered by third-party technology companies as part of
suite, such as Amadeus’s Altéa (See Industry Insight). Once passengers are on board, a range of
in-flight technologies are used to enhance the travel experience.

AIRLINE RESERVATION SYSTEMS

A passenger reservation system, or airline reservation system (ARS), is the most important
application of IT. As its core it is a database of flight schedule and seats availability, fares, rules, and
passenger information. An ARS shows the schedule for the single airline, whereas a GDS shows many
carriers’ schedule. Furthermore, ARSs are used by airline staff while GDSs are used travel
intermediaries to source and book seats. It is important for an ARS to connect to other systems such
as GDSs and Internet Booking Engines (IBEs).

Interoperability is also critical between airlines that are members of the same alliance. The ARS,
typically interfaces with other systems using a standardized message format to book seats in real
time. A major goal of IATA’s new distribution capability (NDC) is to facilitate seamless connectivity
with a common XML-based-data-transmission standard for communication between ARSs, GDSs and
travel intermediaries.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Some airlines develop their own ARSs but they are functionally complex and expensive to
operate and maintain in-house. Consequently, many airlines use an ARS hosted by the GDSs or third-
party IT vendors.

Although each airline’s reservation system may have unique features, most function are similar
and are discussed below:

1. Flight Schedules And Availability

An important function of an ARS is to display flight schedules and availability in response to

requests of passengers and intermediaries. Therefore, an ARS has interface with all touch points
where this information is needed, including the airline’s own website, third-party websites, mobile
apps, GDSs and traditional travel intermediaries. An airline’s availability display shows all flights for a
particular route (or city-pair) and the available seats in different classes. The availability display
usually includes the airline’s own flights and those of code-share partners using the airline’s flight
codes. If direct flights are not available, the availability display will show connecting flight options.

2. Fare Quotes and Rules

The Fare Quote System store fares and rules for each booking class. Fare rules regarding booking
and ticketing deadlines, stopovers, maximum or minimum length of stays and blackout dates are
stored for each fare. Airlines, typically, divide seats into cabin classes (e.g. first, business or economy)
and booking codes that contain different fare quotes and rules. Booking code are also known as
booking classes. A single class may contain several booking codes (see Table 7.1), which are shown
on the passenger’s booking confirmation and boarding pass. Different frequently-flyer points are
awarded based on booking codes, so this information must be integrated into the airline’s
frequent-flyer system.

The combined set of fare quotes and associated rules is called a fare basis code (FBC). For
international itineraries, fares may involve multiple segments, multiple currencies, taxes and sets of
regulations. This requires the interchange of fare data between airlines, GDSs and other
intermediaries. Most of this fare data is distributed either by the Airline Tariff Publishing Company
(ATPCO) or Société International de Télécommunications Aéronautiques (SITA), using a common set
of standards.

By combining scheduling and seat-availability information with the Fare Quote System, an ARS
provides the best fare for every seat. Real-time decision support systems, such as scheduling
optimization systems and revenue management systems, determine the fares (see below) by
monitoring the demand and supply of seats and using algorithms to maximize revenues. Once
determined, these fares are fed into the ARS and GDS for display.

Table 7.1
Examples of
booking codes
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

used by airlines.

3. Passenger Information

The third core function of an ARS is to store passenger information required for
reservations, check-in and other operational procedures. Booking for individual passengers
or groups are stored using a passenger name record (PNR). A PNR contains the
passenger’s name, contact details, payment details, frequent-flyer number and a record
locator. The record locator is a six-character alphanumeric code used to access the
reservation. The PNR also stores special service request (SSRs) such as a seat preference
(e.g. aisle or window), special meals (e.g. vegetarian, kosher, diabetic), wheelchair requests,
and assistance for an unaccompanied minor. It is therefore important that the passenger in
formation in an ARS can be transmitted to other systems. For example, before a flight
departs a passenger name list (PNL) is transmitted to departure and gate control systems so
that passenger can be checked in and a flight manifest can be generated. Special service
request is transferred to flight operations and catering systems while passenger data is
transmitted to customer loyalty databases to update frequent-flyers accounts. Data from a
customer loyalty database may also flow to the PNR to populate fields with existing
information and passenger’s preferences. Data needed for financial systems and reporting
are transmitted to back-office systems.

4. Electronic Ticketing

The final key function of an ARS is ticketing. Historically, airlines require passengers
to travel with paper tickets to validate their reservation. Electronic tickets, or e-tickets, were
devised in the mid- 1990s and became mandatory for all IATA airlines in 2008. Once
reservation is confirmed, passengers are provided with a hard copy of their electronic
e-tickets itinerary, which contains a record locator and itinerary details. An e-ticket itinerary
also includes the terms and conditions of carriage, fare and tax details (including the fare
basis code), fare restrictions and baggage allowances. The e-ticket allows the passenger to
check in online or at the airport to obtain a boarding pass. Because of these different
check-in procedures, an ARS must manage e-tickets at a number of touch points.

In addition to issuing a ticket many airlines offer a range of optional ancillary services,
such as extra leg room, meals, seat requests and extra luggage allowance. For an additional
fee, these ancillary services can be booked by travelers or other travel intermediaries when
making a reservation or at a later date. IATAs Electronic Miscellaneous Document (EMD)
standard has been implemented by most ARSs and GDSs to ensure interoperability
between systems. Just like an e-ticket, the EMD also supports interline standards.

DECISIONS SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Airline managers make decisions about an airline’s flight activity. Computer systems can
analyze such situation and recommend solutions to problems. These systems are based on
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

sophisticated models called operations research (OR) models, which use “what if?” and
sensitivity analyzes to investigate the impact of various factors on operations. Skilled staff
with OR training build and use these models. Decision Support System (DSSs) based on OR
models constitute a significant amount of airline computer applications. The following section
discusses the DSSs used for fleet management, flight and crew scheduling, revenue
management and flight operations.

Fleet Management

The aircraft fleet represents a significant investment and investors expect profits. IT
solutions can optimize the use of the fleet as follows:

●​ Fleet acquisition: an airline needs data support decision about what type of each
aircraft to acquire, when and how many (Belobaba et al., 2009). IT systems provide
information such as the operating costs and profitability of different aircraft types on
particular routes. This information is linked to scheduling and revenue management
data, although aircraft acquisition may also be based on computer preferences
(Bhatia, 1988).

●​ Fleet assignment: the assignment to aircraft to route should maximize profits while
ensuring the efficient use of the fleet. Computers model time-space networks to
ensure optimal assignment of an airline’s fleet.

●​ Fleet maintenance: safety regulations require close monitoring of the maintenance

schedule for each aircraft. Computerized systems ensures that all aircraft receive
maintenance checks at specific intervals. Databases contains information about each
aircraft and maintenance schedule for parts. They generate reports so that checks
and servicing are not overlooked.

Flight Scheduling Systems

Flight scheduling is a complex task requiring route planning to maximize an airline’s

return on investment in aircraft, terminal facilities and people. Route selections consider the
most profitable routes and the frequency of service on those routes. We can develop a better
understanding of the role IT plays in scheduling by adopting an “input-output” perspective.
The complexity of scheduling is due to the wide range of “inputs” that impact the airline’s
operation and its passengers, including:

●​ Strategic goals: strategic decisions such as which markets to serve, how to respond
to competing schedules and pricing, and access to resources such as suppliers,
employees and terminal facilities can impact the long-term viability of routes.

●​ Route network: route network ensure that aircraft utilization is maximized and
connections are convenient for passengers.

●​ Passenger demand: airlines use sophisticated revenue management models to

project demand for each route (see below). Scheduling flights on high demand days
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

and times optimizes load factors and profits.

●​ Alliances: an airline must consider not only its own schedule but also those of
alliance partners so that connecting flights are convenient.

●​ Aircraft type: operating characteristics such as the capacity, range and fuel
efficiency of different aircraft, maintenance schedules and turn around times all
impact scheduling.

●​ Human resources: the availability of flight crew and industrial relations legislation
govern the working conditions of flight crew. Maximum shift durations, recuperation
and changeover of crews need to be considered (see below).

●​ Environmental and safety regulations: airlines and airports must comply with
stringent environmental and safety requirements, which can affect scheduling,
including inspections, maintenance schedules and noise restrictions.

●​ Airport restrictions: curfews, congestion, air traffic control, landing slots and gate
availability can limit departure and arrival windows for a particular route. Some
airports also have physical limitations restricting the type of aircraft that can land.

●​ Contingency planning: exogenous and erratic factors such as weather, air traffic
control delays and technical failures must also be considered by scheduling systems.

The “outputs” are flight schedules that maximize load factors and revenue per available
seat mile (RASM) and minimize costs per available seat mile (CASM). These inputs and
outputs mean that airlines face a complex set of variables. The input-output approach helps
us to understand that the ideal schedule for an airline amounts to the optimization of the
entire company, or in the case of alliances, the entire industry. This optimization is difficult to
achieve without technology. Flight scheduling systems provide an IT solution to model
various scheduling scenarios using this inputs and outputs. A sophisticated flight scheduling
system allows decision-makers to adjust the inputs to model the effects on load factors,
revenue and costs. Flight scheduling is a never-ending task because schedules fluctuate
with market and competitive forces and seasons.

Crew Scheduling Systems

Once the flight schedules have been determined, the pilots and flight attendants must
be scheduled. A computer program called pairing optimizer assembles flight schedules for
each crew member. The process of requesting a particular schedule is called a bid line,
which consists of a series of crew pairings. A crew pairing is a sequence of flights or legs
that start and end at the same base destination (i.e. a round trip). Sometimes it is necessary
to fly off-duty crew members free of charge on other flights, a practice known in the industry
as deadheading. This is inefficient and is avoided whenever possible. The challenge for an
airline is to minimize costs by finding the minimum number of crews to cover all scheduled
flights. A pairing optimizer also identifies reserve crew members in case scheduled crew
members cannot fulfill their duties.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

A pairing optimizer considers various inputs to create the most efficient schedule for the
airline. Examples of inputs are crew requests for their preferred routes, crew
member-seniority, and their base city. Other constraints are work rules, such as maximum
work hours stipulated by industrial relations or union; minimum rest periods; and cost
parameters such as salaries and budgets. IT plays an important role here as computers run
the complex algorithms that underpin scheduling solutions. Although computers do much of
the work, crucial choices and decisions are still made by managers.

Revenue Management

Revenue maximization is a major focus of airlines management. Like hotel rooms (see
chapter 9), airline seats can be sold at different prices. Airlines can maximize revenue and
load factors by selling the right seats at the right place to the right people at the right time.
According to Belobaba et al. (2009), there are two components of revenue management.

●​ The first is price differentiation, whereby seats on the same flight are offered in
different prices with different rules and features.

●​ The second is the use of yield management to determine the number of seats
(booking limits) for each fare class at any given time.

Maximizing revenue requires an understanding of the market, historical trends,

competitor behavior and pricing. Leisure travelers are more price-sensitive and have greater
flexibility than business travelers. As a result, they are attracted to low-cost seats. In peak
times e.g. Friday afternoons), an airline has to control the seat price so that not too many
seats are sold at a low price when passengers are willing to pay more. The main objective is
to preserve some seats for later booking by high-yield travelers.

Airlines use Revenue Management Systems (RMSs) to calculate the booking limits on
each fare class for future flights. These RMSs forecast future demand for different fare
classes so that they can fill each seat with the highest possible revenue. An RMS, typically,
includes the following capabilities:

1.​ Historical data: capturing and analyzing historical booking data to identify patterns
and trends.

2.​ Forecasting: predicting future demand based on historical data and other inputs.

3.​ Modeling: recommendations on booking limits and overbooking levels that optimize
expected flight revenues using mathematical models.

4.​ Decision support: interactive decision support allows revenue managers to review,
accept or reject booking limits and overbooking levels Belobaba et al. (2009).

RMSs automatically update booking limits and forecast at regular interval leading up
to flight departure. Historical data are combined with actual booking information to
determine whether demand on different fare categories is consistent with forecasts.
Airlines sometimes develop their own RMS but IT solutions are also provided by software
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

vendors and GDS vendors. A good example of the latter is the revenue management
component of the Altéa Suite provided by Amadeus (see Industry Insight).

Flight Operation Systems

Airlines and aircraft manufacturers employ a range of IT solutions to support the

operation of a flight. Feeding passengers is one of the most complex logistics challenges
faced by airlines (Jones, 2006). A large international airline like Emirates employs more than
10,000 catering staff and 1000 chefs who produce over 1500 different menus and 300,000
meals per day. Flight catering systems capture special meal requests and manage the
ordering, storage, preparation and delivery of meals. A range of systems order and track the
ingredient required and monitor the freshness, quality and quantity of ingredients so that
orders meet passenger’s demand. For this reason, the flight catering system interfaces with
the ARS. Like restaurants (see Chapter 9), airlines and flight-catering companies use
recipe-costing systems to track meal costs. Barcodes and radio frequency identification
(RFID) chips keep track of trolleys, trays, cutlery and crockery to reduce the incidence of lost
items.

Airlines also employ IT systems to manage operational safety. Most airlines have
developed and implemented integrated safety management systems (SMSs) to report,
monitor and manage incidents. Example of such incidents include human error, food safety
and accidents in the galley, fluid leaks, and mechanical and electrical malfunctions. Systems
that capture these incidents provide reports to be analyzed by management to improve
operational safety.

Marketing and Customer Relationship Management

Previous chapter reviewed how the travel industry has adopted the Internet, social media
and mobile technologies for marketing and customer service applications. Here we discuss
how airlines use these technologies to engage directly with passengers by providing
information, bookings and loyalty programs.

Direct Bookings

Not surprisingly, the Internet has had a major impact on the marketing and
distribution of airline seats. The airlines have a love-heat relationship with the GDS and
OTAs. GDSs and OTAs are an indispensable part of their distribution chain, but they also
increase the distribution costs per booking (Koo et al.,2011). The Internet provides airlines
with an opportunity to sell seats directly to passengers (Klein, 2002). Many LCCs emerged at
the same time as the Internet and the dominant business model was based on direct
distribution rather than paying commission and fees to intermediaries. The Internet allowed
LCCs to bypass intermediaries by using their own internet booking engines (IBEs) (Harcar
and Yucelt, 2012). To further entice passengers concerned about online trust and security,
many LCCs offered discounts for direct bookings on their websites. As a result, direct, online
booking of airline seats became widespread and full-airlines replicated this functionality.
Today, most full-service airlines use a multi-channel model to sell tickets through GDSs and
OTAs as well as their own websites, but LCCs have focused more heavily on the latter.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Airlines websites provide passengers with greater choice and control over seat purchase.
Website feature can be grouped into three categories, which influence satisfaction
differently:

1.​ Basic features such as flight information, booking and check-on tools are expected and
cause dissatisfaction if they are not present.
2.​ Pivotal features that support trust and interaction between the airline and its passengers will
create satisfaction. Features like secure online transactions and frequent-flyer management
tools enhance the utility of airline websites.
3.​ Supplementary features such as the ability to make special requests and buy upgrades,
ancillary products and complementary products can enhance satisfaction but may not cause
dissatisfaction if they are not present (Benckendorff, 2006).

Airlines offer a range of supplementary features, such as odd-ons, upgrades and

ancillary products and services during the booking process. Many airlines use product
bundling by providing passengers with the opportunity to book complementary products such
as accommodation, car rental and other services. Typically, these products and services are
sourced through white-label affiliate programs provided by major OTAs and rebranded by the
airline. The dynamic packaging of these products often results in a lower price than booking
each product individually. Many airlines also provide smartphones apps that allow
passengers to find and book flights, manage their bookings, check in, and receive
notifications and offers.

Some third-party software vendors are also developing virtual reality (VR) tools for
searching and booking air travel. The VR travel search and booking experience allows
travelers to spin a globe of the world, visit a destination, search for flights, walk through an
aircraft cabin to select their seat, check out different rental cars and pay for their booking,
without leaving the virtual reality. The following video from Amadeus provides a good
illustration of this technology: https//[Link]/Ax0BmO3DrTc.

Loyalty Programs

Full-service airlines offer customer loyalty programs known as frequent-flyer programs

(FFPs). Passengers become members of these programs to receive benefits and enroll in
the program to accumulate points (or miles) corresponding to the distance flown on the
airline or its alliance partners. Members can also accumulate points through shopping and
co-branded credit and debit cards. Points are redeemed for air travel, upgrades, priority
seating, airport lounge access, complementary travel products or other goods and services.

Databases keep track of points and manage the relationship between airlines and FFP
members (Yang and Liu, 2003). These databases are a good example of a Customer
Relationship Management (CRM) system because they enable airlines to individual
information about customers and their preferences to build long-term relationships and
encourage repeat business. Ideally, FFPs should connect to the airline and partner ARS so
that points can be automatically awarded after a trip. Dedicated websites for frequent-flyers
programs allow members to manage, claim and redeem points. Since these points are
valuable, security is to ensure that computer hackers cannot access frequent- flyer accounts.
All of these functions mean that FFPs are underpinned by sophisticated hardware and
software systems.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Airlines can also combine big data and social media profiles with FFP accounts to
provide personalized offers. Since FFP points are a liability for most airlines, members are
encouraged to redeem their points for products and services that do not impact the airline’s
profitability. Predictive analytics combine big data, statistical analysis and artificial
intelligence to make predictions about offers that are likely to entice FFP members. In this
new world of big data, privacy and how personal data is used is important.

Customer Service

Airlines were early adopters of the web and email as customer service tools
(Dickinger and Bauernfeind, 2009). Airlines now use mobile applications and social media to
deliver relevant, time- critical procedural information to passengers, including airport and
flight information, notification of gate openings and changes, alternative flights in case of
cancelations or missed flights, compensations, offers and coupons (Amadeus, 2012). Mobile
devices also offer airlines an opportunity to sell ancillary services and upgrades, even after a
passenger has arrived at the airport. The combination of mobile devices and social media
creates a mechanism for the exchange of suggestions, complaints, testimonials and ratings
throughout the journey. As we have seen in Chapter 5, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines uses social
media to update passengers about delays, cancellations and alternative arrangements. This
is a good example of a high-tech solution supporting a high-touch response in an otherwise
increasingly automated process. Later in this chapter we will explore how airlines and
airports work together to deploy technologies to support the entire passenger journey.

DEPARTURE SYSTEMS

Departure Control Systems

A Departure Control System (DCS) automates the processing of passengers at the

airport. This includes managing airport check-in and boarding, checked bags, load control
and aircraft checks. DCSs typically have the following functionality:

1.​ Check-in: support for touch points including check-in counter staffed by airline
representative, self-service kiosks, mobile check-in and online check-in.

2.​ Boarding passes: issue electronic and hardcopy boarding passes formatted
according to IATA standards.

3.​ Seat allocation: assign a seat or provide the passenger with a choice of available
seats displayed on a graphical seat map.

4.​ Checked baggage: confirm the number and weight of checked bags, automatically
calculate excess baggage chargers and issue bag tags according to IATA standards.

5.​ Load control: automate the task of calculating load distribution and balance by using
load factors, seat allocations and baggage weights.

6.​ Passenger identification: scan passports to verify the identity of passengers.

7.​ Denied boarding: deny boarding if details are missing from the PNR, if the flight is
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

overbooked or if there is a perceived risk.

8.​ No shows and standby passengers: allocate empty seats to standby passengers
at the las minute. “No-show” passengers have a reservation but do not turn up for
boarding, while standby passengers arrive at the airport without a reservation when
they have missed a flight or wish to take an earlier flight,

9.​ Interline connections: passengers traveling on interline tickets or connecting flights

should be able to check baggage through to their final destination. In the case of
delays, the DCS identifies alternative flights and connections, and the transfer,
rebooking and rechecking of passengers.

10.​Interoperability: The DCS must interface with the ARS to identify, capture and
update PNR reservations. The DCS will change the status of a passenger to checked
in, boarded, flown or another status. The DCS may be connected to immigration
control for visa. Immigration and passenger no-fly watch lists.

The DCSs used by most North American airlines are incorporated into ARSs but outside
North America they are often provided by third-party vendors such as Amadeus, Travelport
and SITA. These vendors have developed “next generation” DCSs as part of the
re-engineering of airline passenger service systems (PSSs). They use an integrated
database and open architecture to allow reservations, check-in and other services and
maintain a consistent view of passenger information.

Next-generation DCSs are using mobile technologies to fulfill some of the functions we
have discussed. Ambient intelligence, some allows airlines to track passengers and
baggage, allowing passengers to check-in, clear security and board their flight using RFID
chips embedded in FFP membership cards or near-field communication (NFC) capabilities in
smartphones. In the future, airlines will use these technologies to automatically issue
boarding passes and baggage tags when passengers enter the terminal. They can also
issue text messages or social media updates to passengers, the use of this technology has
enormous potential, but there are some challenges associated with data management,
privacy and security.
Gate Control
Flight arrival in airports must be coordinated with airport facilities. Each flight needs a
gate assignment upon arrival and must depart the gate on time to avoid causing delays to
other flights. An arriving aircraft needs a skyway to disembark the passengers into the
terminal and access for vehicles to service the aircraft in preparation for another flight.
Examples of such services are foodservice, cleaning, fueling and maintenance.

In determine the best utilization of gates, computer models consider arrival times, aircraft
types, turnaround times, gates of connecting flights (particularly for hub and spoke route
structures) and cost. The best gate pattern for arrivals uses resources most efficiently. Many
airports, however, do not have enough gates to accommodate the number of incoming
flights. Often airlines must de-plane on the runways, bus passengers to the terminal and
service the plane on the tarmac. Computer technology can mitigate the inconveniences
cause by gate shortages by ensuring maximum use of available gates.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Flight Dispatch

An airline dispatcher is responsible for planning and monitoring the progress of an

aircraft journey. The dispatcher is like a “big brother or sister” to the pilot and air traffic
control to ensure a safe journey. The pilot and the dispatcher jointly share legal responsibility
for flight safety. A dispatcher prepares a flight plan for each journey and has the authority to
delay, divert or cancel a flight at any time. The dispatcher also calculates the weight of the
aircraft, the amount of fuel required, the flight distance, maintenance limitations, weather
conditions and other factors affecting flight safety. Dispatchers are based at an airport where
they use sophisticated IT tools to monitor all aspects of a flight’s progress remotely.
Real-time monitoring allows the dispatcher to track the flight path and other aircraft in the
same area, and predict arrival and departure times. IT systems also monitor meteorological
conditions and the aircraft position relative to obstacles, airspace regulations and temporary
flight restriction, so that flights can be diverted if they are safety concerns. Dispatch software
packages also monitor the maintenance status of the aircraft. Examples of software
packages include Flight Dispatcher Pro and Flight Vector.

In-flight Technologies

A range of in-flight technologies are used on board to service passenger needs and to
ensure safety. These IT applications can be divided into passenger technologies and crew
support systems.

Passenger Technologies

The passenger seat is a hub of computer technology. Seat backs now include
touch-screen in- flight entertainment (IFE) systems and communication tools such as
phones, Wi-Fi and the ability to communicate with flight attendants and other passengers.
Videos screens in the seat back allow passengers to view live satellite television or video on
demand (VOD), listen to music, shop for duty- free items, order food, send and receive
email, play video games and even gamble. A visual geographic information system (GIS)
display that shows the location of the aircraft and its progress is also provided. Live video
footage from external cameras and information on aircraft speed, estimated time of arrival
(ETA), distance traveled, times at the origin and destination and outside temperature can be
accessed by the passengers. Some IFEs also provide services for disabled travelers. For
example, closed captioning technology provides hearing-impaired passengers with text
streamed along with video and spoken audio. These systems can stream text in different
languages. Several airlines from Islamic states also provide Qibla directions to allow
Muslims to pray towards Mecca (e.g. Emirates, Etihad, Malaysia Airlines, Qatar Airways and
Royal Jordanian).

Hardware manufacturers for IFE systems includes Panasonic Avionics Corporation,

Thales Group, Row 44 and On Air, but the content is licensed from content service
providers. The last systems communicate wirelessly through an onboard intranet. Video and
audio content is stored on the main IFE computer system or on individual devices, allowing
for in-demand viewing by individual passengers. Some IFEs are not compatible XM Satellite
Radio and iPods, allowing passengers to listen to their own music. Some airlines also
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

provide apps for passengers’ own device to access content streamed wirelessly during the
flight. This “bring your own device” approach is most common on LCCs.

Onboard connectivity allows passengers to communicate with people on the ground

using the Internet. These services are supported by satellite communication, which is not as
fast as ground-based Internet access. However, they do allow passengers to browse the
web, send emails and text messages and update social media. Passengers can also make
bookings at the destination after they have left home. Some airlines provide satellite phones
while others provide mobile phone or Wi-Fi signal so that passengers can use their own
phones. Some systems also allow passengers to call passengers in other seats or play
in-flight games together. These social features will be more common as airlines experiment
with new technologies. Some airlines have trial virtual and mixed-reality IFE experiences. A
company called SkyLights ([Link] is pioneering the development of
immersive 360° virtual reality experiences for passengers.

Crew Support Systems

A flight will usually be supported by two crews, the flight deck crew, including the captain,
first officer and flight engineer, and the cabin crew consisting of a customer manager/purser
and flight attendants. Both crews use different IT systems to support their functions, Pilots
traditionally kept their flight papers and other information in a large briefcase; however, some
airlines have replaced these with tablets. Unlike paper-based systems, these tablets are
easier to carry on board and the information can be updated as conditions change. Once on
board, the flight-deck crew use a variety of IT systems to support navigation, communication
and the maintenance of flight logs.

The cabin crew provides important services to passengers in the main cabin of the
aircraft. One of the most important roles of the flight crew is to ensure that the passenger list
(also called the manifest) is correct. Airlines traditionally used paper lists, but tablet computer
is increasingly being used to store and update these lists. Tablets can also be programmed
to include other useful information such as timetables, safety information and detailed
passenger information such as meal requests, frequent-flyer membership and itineraries.
They also enable the crew to know which passengers have connecting flights, enabling them
to make alternative arrangements should there be any delay. In the future, flight crew may
use wearable technologies such as Google Glass to access passenger information from the
flight manifest to personalize the experience. During the flight, wireless point-of-sale (POS)
devices can be used to facilitate sale of beverages, movie headsets and duty-free products.
In the case of LCCs, the use of technologies such as these may reduce labor costs if fewer
flight attendants are needed. The cabin crew also relies on a range of communication
systems to communicate with the flight deck and with passengers.

AIRPORTS

Modern airports are complex ecosystems of businesses, services and facilities. The
scale and size of some airports make them similar to small cities. The modern airport
terminal houses a range of features such as check-in facilities, security, customs and
immigration, ground handling, baggage and cargo handling, and concessions such as food,
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

beverage and retail outlets. Terminal are either domestic or international, with international
airports requiring more security and services. The terminal can also be divided into:

●​ The landslide (i.e. areas before security clearance) and

●​ The airside (i.e. areas beyond security clearance) which are managed differently.

●​ Other areas of the airport include air traffic control and the runways and aprons
used for take-off, landing, taxiing and parking aircraft.

Managers of privatized airports have also sought to maximize their return on investment
by developing unused airport land for warehousing, conference centers, accommodation,
leisure, golf courses, entertainment, shopping, personal services and even residential areas.

The complex airport ecosystems require a range of IT applications to ensure the smooth
transit of passengers. Computers, tablets, kiosk and mobile devices are used intensively for
passengers processing, baggage and cargo-handling and concessions. Similarly,
contemporary ATC procedure would not be possible without the navigation and surveillance
technologies used to manage air traffic. The sustainable management of airport land also
requires the use of technology to monitor noise, air and water quality, and wild life. The
following pages will focus on these technologies and how they are being used to enhance
passengers’ experiences in increasingly busy and complex airports.

Passenger Processing

Airlines use a variety of departure and gate control system to support passengers as the
journey through an airport from check-in to boarding. Airports work together with airlines and
IT to provide these systems. The passenger journey can be viewed as a series of touch
points consisting of pre-arrival, check-in, security, pre-boarding, transit and arrival. As Fig.
7.2 indicates, the first five touch points occur at the origin airport while the last two occur at
transit or destination airports.

Pre-arrival

In the past, airports and airlines focused on managing passengers once they enter
the airport. However, more rigorous security measures and rapid growth in air travel have
created new challenges. Fortunately, new technological advances allow airports and airlines
to shift process to the pre-arrival stage. For example, passengers are able to check-in using
the Internet or a mobile device before they arrive at the airport, reducing waiting times and
congestion.

Airports are also using geofencing, which tracks passengers using an airport or
airline app installed on their mobile device (see Chapter 6 for more details). Virtual
geofences are built around an airport at different proximities and triggers are attached to
each fence as shown in Fig. 7.3.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Figure 7.2. Stages of the passenger journey.

Figure 7.3. An Example of Geofencing Around An International Airport.

When a passenger is enroute to the airport, the app uses the device’s global
positioning systems (GPS) to detect the passenger’s location. As they approach the airport,
different triggers can be activated. For example, a geofence set a 10 km from the airport
could determine whether the passenger has enough time to board their flight. If the
passenger is late, the system can send an automatic notification offering to rebook them. If
the passenger is early, the system might notify them about lounge access. As the passenger
gets closer to the airport they can be notified about available parking spaces. Similar
technology can notify “meeters and greeters” when a flight has landed and when passengers
have disembarked and cleared customs so that waiting time is minimized.

These facilities are possible because of GPS, FRID, NFC and other transmission
technologies in mobile devices. While innovations automate and improve the passenger
experience, they also offer strategic and operational advantages for airports. Informing
passengers about available parking spaces and guiding them to the terminal can alleviate
congestion and waiting times. Notifying passengers that they will miss their flight allows
airports and airlines to reduce airport crowding cause by delayed passengers.

Check In

Today, the check-in process is increasingly managed before passengers arrive at the
airport, and there has been a major shift away from check-in counters to self-service kiosks.
The kiosks are linked to an airline’s DCS, and passengers can check in by entering their
name and destination, record locator, frequent-flyer membership card of passport.

Passengers can also check in the airport using their mobile devices (SITA, 2018). As
they enter the terminal a geofence automatically checks the passengers in and issues
electronic boarding passes and luggage tags for collection. The passenger can be notified
about boarding times and gate information and may also receive special offers such as
upgrades, priority boarding and lounge access. Passengers with checked bags can leave
these at a self-service bag drop. Mobile apps communicate wirelessly with the airline’s DCS
so that the status and details of passengers are automatically updated when they are
checked in. Boarding passes can be stored electronically on the mobile device using an
airline’s app or apps such as Apple Passbook or Google Wallet. Additional luggage fees can
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

be paid using these apps. In addition, roving airline or airport representatives use tablets to
attend to any check- in issues. In the future self-service check-in kiosks are likely to
disappear from airport departure areas (Amadeus, 2012). We may also see virtual service
agents guiding passengers through check-in at airports.

Since GPS is not reliable in indoor environments, the functionality described above relies
on micro-location technologies such as NFC or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). BLE, also
known as Smart Bluetooth, is the technology behind Apple’s iBeacon. Using BLE, an airport
or airline can define more targeted “micro-locations” to trigger an activity. The technology
can be used with apps such as Passbook to display passenger itineraries, boarding passes,
identification and notifications when passengers cross the geofence threshold of a defined
location.

Security and Immigration

The protection of passengers, staff and aircraft is one of the most important
considerations for an airport. The role of airport security systems is to identify and manage
external and internal threats. Internal threats occur when employees inside the terminal pose
a risk to passengers or their belongings. Security systems monitor baggage and
ground-handling facilities to prevent baggage of cargo theft and tampering. External threats
arise from passengers and other unauthorized individuals. Both employees and passengers
can pose a threat by carrying weapons, explosives or other dangerous items on board.
Threat are managed using equipment to scan people, screen baggage and detect
explosives.

The perimeter is monitored by electronic alarms and CCTV cameras. CCTV cameras
are also used throughout terminal buildings, car parks, runways and apron areas. Staff
access to the airside of the airport is controlled by self-locking doors unlocked by PIN codes,
ID cards or biometric scanners. At most airports both passengers and staff are required to
clear security checkpoints.

Security screening usually involves the following steps:

1.​ Confirming the identity of travelers. This is done through visual and electronic
checks or passports and boarding passes. Or biometric systems (see below).

2.​ X-ray baggage screening. Carry-on luggage and checked bags are screened using
X-ray machines monitored by security personnel.

3.​ Body screening. Passengers are usually screened by walking through a metal
detector. Some airports have also installed backscatter X-ray scanner that conduct a
non-invasive full-body scan.

Identity management and verification is a critical necessity for ensuring the safety of air
travel. At international airports passengers can be screened at security and immigration
points by using new non-intrusive technologies such as electronic passports, smart ID cards,
electronic tags and biometrics. Biometrics identify individuals base on physiological traits
such as facial structure, iris patterns, fingerprints and voice recognition. Most countries now
issue e-passports with an integrated RFID chip containing information about the passenger,
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

and, when coupled with biometric scanning, can be used to verify identity. Examples
includes Australia’s SmartGate system and the Global Entry system used in the USA. In the
future, IT will be able to identify individuals using traits such as their walking gait, body
language, heart rhythms or DNA profiles (Amadeus, 2012).

SITA is trailing the application of block chain, or Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), as
the basis for a “virtual passport” issued as a single secure token on mobile and wearable
devices. SITA’s Smart Path system capture a passenger’s biometric details with a facial scan
at a check-in kiosk or bag drop. Once checked against the passenger’s travel documents, a
secure single token is created and stored in a secure biometric database within the airport.
It’s then used at every interaction through the airport for the duration of the passenger’s
journey. The use of DLT has the potential to reduce complexity, cost and liability around
document checks during the passenger journey. Please watch this video for more
information [Link]

Pre-boarding

Passengers enter the airside of the terminal after they have cleared security and
immigration. When travelers are in unfamiliar airports, they have a critical need for
information about airport activities and facilities, preferably in their own luggage. Flight
Information Display Systems (FIDS) display flight departure and arrival times, gate numbers
and baggage carousel locations on wall-sized displays or individual monitors, which may
contain multimedia and graphic displays.

Many airports provide free Wi-Fi and facilities for travelers to recharge their electronic
devices. This is done with power cords and adapters; however, inductive electrical systems
can recharge passengers’ devices wirelessly. Large airports have developed their own
smartphones apps to assist passengers, while independent apps such as GateGuru cover
multiple airports. Airports apps provide maps and navigation tools, information about
concession and amenities, and connectivity to the FIDS. They also use location-aware
services to push offers and coupons from concession to passengers. Some use augmented
reality to assist with navigation, the presentation of information and special offers, often in
multiple languages. Airport apps also facilitate social media inter-actions between
passengers. Apart from free Wi-Fi, facilities allowing passengers to download entertainment
for in-flight viewing are likely to become more common.

Modern terminals offer a bewildering array of shopping, dining and entertainment

facilities to passengers. Concessions are commercial businesses that operate within the
terminal. Typically, these businesses offer food and beverages, shopping, and leisure and
entertainment. Concessions, typically, pay a proportion of their profits to the airport, which
then has a vested interest in maximizing the profitability of each concession. Airports can
use business intelligence technologies to monitor how passenger traffic flows impact
purchase behavior, allowing the airport to adjust retail elements to maximize
non-aeronautical revenues.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Concessions use point-of-sale (POS) systems to record and process transactions.

Duty-free shopping, in particular, requires information processing to ensure merchandise is
sold only to bona fide travelers. Computer systems are needed that connect with flight
information systems to ensure the right merchandise is delivered to the right flight at the right
time. Airports also use technology to entertain passengers while they wait for flights.
Examples include the use of technology in 6D cinemas (e.g. Schiphol airport), gaming zones
(e.g. Hong Kong International Airport), electronics zones and science museums (e.g. Changi
Airport), interactive walls and tables for games, media and information (e.g. Dubai Airport),
and stimulated experiences. There is a scope for massive multi-player games (MMPGs)
using the airport environment (Amadeus, 2012). This gamification of the airport environment
could involve geocaching, where passengers use clues to discover different features of the
terminal. A good example of how this might work in reality is Ingress, Google’s augmented
reality game in which users join one of two teams to take control of various portals seeded
throughout the terminal. Watch the following video to see how augmented reality has been
used for navigation and retail at Dubai International airport: [Link]

Boarding

Boarding commences with a passenger announcement, which, in busy airports, can

create significant background noise. Some airports have a silent policy requiring passengers
to use FIDS or mobile passenger devices. Alerts sent to a mobile device can announce the
boarding process. Standard IATA Bar Coded Boarding Passes (BCBP) automate the
matching of boarding passes with the passenger list. Boarding passes are scanned with an
optical scanner that reads the barcode from paper or a mobile screen.

There is scope to use mobile devices to streamline the boarding process even more.
New innovations will dynamically update boarding passes. Boarding passes saved to an
Apple Passbook coupled with Bluetooth technologies such as iBeacon and biometrics allows
passengers to board by passing through an electronic screening point – essentially, a
geofence. This approach would reduce queues at boarding gates and load the aircraft more
quickly.

Stopover

Some itineraries require a stopover to change flights at a transit airport. Transit

passengers are likely to use IT facilities discussed at the pre-boarding stage, including free
Wi-Fi, airport apps and FIDS. Transit passengers also have special needs to freshen up, get
in touch with loved ones, rest and relax. Airports provide free computer terminals where
passengers can access the Internet. Digital information indicates where showers and quite
zones are located. Sleep pods are common in airports with large numbers of transit
passengers. These pods contain special lighting and audio to lull guests to sleep and alarms
to rouse them for their flight. Mobile apps can also support passengers who have missed a
connecting flight by booking alternative flights.

Arrival
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

Airlines and airports have focused heavily on the departure experience. However, there
is a need to consider the arrival experience because the destination airport is often the first
impression the visitors have of the destination. Free Wi-Fi is, once again, an indispensable
tool for arriving passengers. While passengers wait for customs, immigration and baggage
claim, they can access the Internet to make ground transport or accommodation bookings.
NFC and BLE can push visitor information and e- brochures to mobile passenger devices for
later reading.

An arduous and time-consuming task in international gateway airports is the processing

of passengers’ immigration documents. When numerous flights disembark at the same time,
delays can be long, and tired passengers become frustrated. The biometric systems we
discussed earlier can screen passengers and record their details before they enter a country.
In some countries scanners and cameras capture travelers’ fingerprints and photographs. In
the future, airports are likely to move towards intelligent ambient technologies to scan
passengers for both security and health risks as they arrive.

Governments have also computerized immigration control by maintaining databases of

individuals that they do not wish to have enter the country, such as the no-fly list maintained
by the US government. These databases are accessed when travelers show their
documentation upon arrival. The digitization of passports and visas also facilitates the
processing of passengers. The latest systems are used automated intelligent analysis to
determine risk profiles based on passenger data.

Once passengers have cleared immigration, they go to baggage claim before they can
pass through customs to the landslide of the airport. IT applications to track and steam line
the handling of passenger baggage is discussed in the next section. After moving through
customs, passengers can use mobile apps to book taxis and other ground transport, and
some of these systems are discussed in the next chapter.

The overall goal is to create a seamless passenger experience from departure to arrival.
Watch the following video from Sabre to see their vision of how the technologies we have
discussed can be leveraged to create a seamless departure and arrival experience:
[Link]

These technologies are not just consumer focused; companies such as SITA are
developing business intelligence tools that provide real-time performance data such as
passenger volumes, queue times and dwell times in different parts of the terminal (SITA,
2018). Location-aware technologies such as Wi-Fi, NFC and Bluetooth enable airport
stakeholders to anticipate and plan for peak events and disruptions. They also enable
airlines to see the location of their passengers, allowing staff to take proactive measures for
on-time departure. This information can be displayed on tablets alongside CCTV footage,
allowing airport stakeholders to manage passenger flows and traffic. Tablet devices also
update information displayed on FIDS, such as flights status, gate changes and walking
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

distances to terminal gates. Watch the following video to learn more:

[Link]

SITA’s Airlines and Airport IT Trends Survey revealed that predictive tools using artificial
intelligence are likely to be adopted by airports over the coming five or ten years (SITA,
2016). Predictive analytics encompass a variety of techniques from statistics, modeling,
machine learning, and data mining to avoid or mitigate disruptions to airport and airline
operations.

Baggage and Cargo Handling

Airlines and airports must work together to move baggage and cargo from check-in
areas to screening points and onto the aircraft. While 99% of checked baggage is delivered
on time, lost or mishandled baggage still costs the industry an estimated US$2.1 billion a
year or about US$100 per piece of luggage (SITA, 2017). For this reason, airports and
airlines invest considerable resources into baggage handling systems (BHSs), which track
baggage and prevent lost luggage. Baggage tags with optical barcodes containing the tag
number, flight segments and destination of each bag are the most common IT infrastructure
used by BHSs. At check-in, the tag information is scanned into a database linked with the
airline’s reservation and passengers processing systems. This information also connects to
a central baggage tracking system (such as SITA’s Bagtrac) used by all carriers.

Computers track the location of individual bags, travel itineraries and flight schedules.
Optical scanning technology reads bag tags as they move along conveyor belts connecting
check-in counters, baggage check-in points and aircraft at gates. Computer controls the
conveyor junctions and switches that ensure each bag ends up at the correct destination. A
lost can be readily tracked with a tag retained by the passenger. The optical barcode on the
tag is used to access the database record and determine the bag’s location. SITA and IATA
provide a service called World Tracer to match found bags with lost bag reports. A
smartphone app or self-service kiosks at baggage claims areas allows passengers to scan
luggage tags to lodge a lost luggage request. Watch the following video to see how this
works: [Link]

Many airlines also carry cargo and need IT handle both reservations and tracking
systems separately from the passenger systems. As with passenger baggage, optical
barcodes are used to track the cargo’s journey.

Recent developments use ambient intelligence in the form of RFID bag tags and RFID
chips embedded in luggage. These innovations increase the efficiency of passenger and
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

baggage processing by supporting automated check-in and self-service baggage drops. The
technology also sorts and tracks baggage more reliably, leading to faster delivery of luggage
to travelers at baggage claim. Passengers on some airlines can track the status and location
of checked bags throughout the journey, in much the same way as customers follow a
package sent by a courier company. Websites and mobile apps allow passengers to monitor
their luggage location in real time, including during flight if Wi-Fi is available on board.
Amadeus (2012) predicts that by 2025 all baggage will be self-scanning and that airports will
employ robotic end-to-end baggage-handling systems.

Air Traffic Control

Air traffic control (ATC) plays a crucial role in the safety and efficiency of aviation
operations by tracking every flight from take-off to landing. The role of ATC is to ensure the
safe and efficient flow of air traffic (Belobaba [Link]., 2009).

This is achieved through the use of four interrelated IT systems:

1.​ Communications systems: pilots and dispatchers communicate with air traffic
controllers using very high frequency (VHF) over short distances, high frequency
(HF) short-wave or satellite-based communication (SAT-COM) systems for longer
distances, and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System
(ACARS) for data transmission. Recent progress has been made with new system
called the Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN).

2.​ Navigation systems: pilots and controllers use a number of different navigation
systems during take-off, cruising and landing. Signal generates a visual display of the
aircraft’s position on a monitor.

3.​ Surveillance systems: controllers use surveillance systems to monitor the flow and
position of air traffic. Many rely on radar to display the position of each aircraft on a
monitor.

4.​ Flight and weather information systems: decision support systems help
controllers optimize the flow of traffic at congested airports. Flight plans are lodged
and disseminated by flight data processing systems while weather information
systems provide weather observations, forecasts and alerts (Belobaba [Link]., 2009).

Across all four of these elements, IT plays a critical role on providing controllers with the
real- time information required to track and manage air space.

Environmental Management Systems

Airports use IT to manage the environmental impacts of their operations by using

environmental management systems (EMS). Aviation impacts the environment at the local,
regional and global levels. Examples of these impacts include:

●​ Water quality: the quality of waterways is affected by run-off from terminal buildings,
runways and aprons; de-icing operations; fuel leaks and spills; and other solid and
liquid wastes.
 Chapter 5: Aviation and Information Technology

●​ Noise pollution: noise from aircraft causes sleep disturbance and impacts on
property values.

●​ Air pollution: pollution form aircraft adversely affects air quality by increasing
greenhouse gases such as CO2 into the atmosphere.

●​ Wildlife: aircraft movements impact wildlife feeding, breeding and migration patterns
and are a threat to bird life around airports.

To manage these impacts, governments impose strict environmental regulations on

airports (Belobaba [Link]., 2009). Technologies manage or reduce the impact of aviation
operations on the environment, including:

●​ Environmental monitoring: computer and specialized equipment are used to

analyze, record and report air and water samples collected by airports as part of the
regulatory requirements.

●​ Energy use: IT systems monitor energy use and shut down non-essential services
when not in use. Chapter 12 discusses these systems in more detail.

●​ Noise reduction: computers are used to model aircraft and engine designs before
prototypes are produced. New technologies supporting a continuous descent
approach also alleviate some noise

●​ Carbon emission reduction: computer design of engines and aircraft has also
dramatically improved fuel efficiency. Passengers can purchase carbon off-seats
when booking flights through the ARS or website. Scientists are also using IT to
monitor greenhouse gas emissions and model their impact on climate change.

●​ Water quality: computerized spraying systems apply aircraft de-icing fluids to reduce
wastage, overspray and run-off into waterways. Ice-detection systems that rely on
magneto strictive, electromagnetic and ultrasonic technologies detect the ice
(Belobaba [Link]., 2009).