CIT 104 MODULE 4

WEEK 4 COURSE MATERIAL

MODULE 4 PROGRAMMING THE COMPUTER

Unit 1 Computer Languages

Unit 2 Basic Principles of Computer Programming
Unit 3 Flowcharts and Algorithms

UNIT 1 COMPUTER LANGUAGES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An Overview of Computer- Programming Language
3.2 Types of Programmes, Language
3.2.1 Machine Language
3.2.2 Assembly (Low Level) Language
3.2.3 High Level Language
3.2.4 High Level Language
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we shall take a look at computer programming with

emphasis on:

a. The overview of computer programming languages.

b. Evolutionary trends of computer programming languages.
c. Programming computers in a Beginner All-Purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code (BASIC) language environment.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to provide background

information about programming the computer.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 An Overview of Computer Programming Languages

Basically, human beings cannot speak or write in computer language, and

since computers cannot speak or write in human language, an
intermediate language had to be devised to allow people to communicate
with the computers. These intermediate languages, known as
programming languages, allow a computer programmer to direct the
activities of the computer. These languages are structured around a
unique set of rules that dictate exactly how a programmer should direct
the computer to perform a specific task. With the powers of reasoning
and logic of human beings, there is the capability to accept an instruction
and understand it in many different forms. Since a computer must be
programmed to respond to specific instructions, instructions cannot be
given in just any form. Programming languages standardise the
instruction process. The rules of a particular language tell the programmer
how the individual instructions must be structured and what sequence of
words and symbols must be used to form an instruction.

 An operation code
 Some operands.

The operation code tells the computer what to do such as add, subtract,
multiply and divide. The operands tell the computer the data items
involved in the operations. The operands in an instruction may consist of
the actual data that the computer may use to perform an operation, or the
storage address of data. Consider for example the instruction: a = b
+ 5. The ‘=’ and ‘+’ are operation codes while ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘5’ are
operands. The ‘a’ and ‘b’ are storage addresses of actual data while ‘5’ is
an actual data.

Some computers use many types of operation codes in their instruction

format and may provide several methods for doing the same thing. Other
computers use fewer operation codes, but have the capacity to perform
more than one operation with a single instruction. There are four basic
types of instructions, namely:

(a) input-output instructions;

(b) arithmetic instructions;
(c) branching instructions; and
(d) logic instructions.

An input instruction directs the computer to accept data from a specific

input device and store it in a specific location in the store. An output

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instruction tells the computer to move a piece of data from a computer

storage location and record it on the output medium.

All of the basic arithmetic operations can be performed by the computer.

Since arithmetic operations involve at least two numbers, an arithmetic
operation must include at least two operands.

Branch instructions cause the computer to alter the sequence of execution

of instruction within the program. There are two basic types of branch
instructions; namely unconditional branch instruction and conditional
branch instruction. An unconditional branch instruction or statement will
cause the computer to branch to a statement regardless of the existing
conditions. A conditional branch statement will cause the computer to
branch to a statement only when certain conditions exist.

Logic instructions allow the computer to change the sequence of

execution of instruction, depending on conditions built into the program
by the programmer. Typical logic operations include: shift, compare and
test.

3.2 Types of Programming Language

The effective utilisation and control of a computer system is primarily

through the software of the system. We note that there are different types
of software that can be used to direct the computer system. System
software directs the internal operations of the computer, and applications
software allows the programmer to use the computer to solve user made
problems. The development of programming techniques has become as
important to the advancement of computer science as the developments
in hardware technology. More sophisticated programming techniques
and a wider variety of programming languages have enabled computers
to be used in an increasing number of applications.

Programming languages, the primary means of human-computer

communication, have evolved from early stages where programmers
entered instructions into the computer in a language similar to that used
in the application. Computer programming languages can be classified
into the following categories:

(a) Machine language

(b) Assembly language
(c) High level symbolic language
(d) Very high level symbolic language

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3.2.1 Machine Language

The earliest forms of computer programming were carried out by using

languages that were structured according to the computer stored data, that
is, in a binary number system. Programmers had to construct programs
that used instructions written in binary notation 1 and 0. Writing programs
in this fashion is tedious, time-consuming and susceptible to errors.

Each instruction in a machine language program consists, as mentioned

before, of two parts namely: operation code and operands. An added
difficulty in machine language programming is that the operands of an
instruction must tell the computer the storage address of the data to be
processed. The programmer must designate storage locations for both
instructions and data as part of the programming process. Furthermore,
the programmer has to know the location of every switch and register that
will be used in executing the program, and must control their functions by
means of instructions in the program.

A machine language program allows the programmer to take advantage

of all the features and capabilities of the computer system for which it was
designed. It is also capable of producing the most efficient program as far
as storage requirements and operating speeds are concerned. Few
programmers today write applications programs in machine language.
A machine language is computer dependent. Thus, an IBM machine
language will not run on NCR machine, DEC machine or ICL machine.
A machine language is the First Generation (computer) Language (IGL).

3.2.2 Assembly (Low Level) Language

Since machine language programming proved to be a difficult and tedious

task, a symbolic way of expressing machine language instructions is
devised. In assembly language, the operation code is expressed as a
combination of letters rather than binary numbers, sometimes called
mnemonics. This allows the programmer to remember the operations
codes easily than when expressed strictly as binary numbers. The storage
address or location of the operands is expressed as a symbol rather than
the actual numeric address. After the computer has read the program,
operations software are used to establish the actual locations for each
piece of data used by the program. The most popular assembly language
is the IBM Assembly Language.

Because the computer understands and executes only machine language

programs, the assembly language program must be translated into a
machine language. This is accomplished by using a system software
program called an assembler. The assembler accepts an assembly

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language program and produces a machine language program that the

computer can actually execute. The schematic diagram of the translation
process of the assembly language into the machine language is shown in
fig.9.1. Although, assembly language programming offers an
improvement over machine language programming, it is still an arduous
task, requiring the programmer to write programs based on particular
computer operation codes. An assembly language program developed and
run on IBM computers would fail to run on ICL computers.
Consequently, the portability of computer programs in a computer
installation to another computer installation which houses different makes
or types of computers were not possible. The low level languages are,
generally, described as Second Generation (Computer) Language (2GL).

Low Level
Language Assembler Machine Language Operating System
Program Program

Store
Fig.11: The assembly language program translation process

3.2.3 High Level Language

The difficulty of programming and the time required to program

computers in assembly languages and machine languages led to the
development of high-level languages. The symbolic languages,
sometimes referred to as problem oriented languages reflect the type of
problem being solved rather than the computer being used to solve it.
Machine and assembly language programming is machine dependent but
high level languages are machine independent, that is, a high-level
language program can be run on a variety of computers.

While the flexibility of high level languages is greater than that of

machine and assembly languages, there are close restrictions in exactly
how instructions are to be formulated and written. Only a specific set of
numbers, letters, and special characters may be used to write a high level
program and special rules must be observed for punctuation. High level
language instructions do resemble English language statements and the
mathematical symbols used in ordinary mathematics. Among the existing
and popular high level programming languages are Fortran, Basic, Cobol,
Pascal, Algol, Ada and P1/1. The schematic diagram of the translation
process of a high level language into the machine language is shown in
fig.9.2. The high level languages are, generally, described as Third
Generation (Computer) Language (3GL).

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Low Level
Compiler Machine Language Operating System
Language
Program
Program
Store
Fig. 12: The high level language program translation process

The general procedure for the compilation of a computer program coded

in any high level language is conceptualised in Fig. 13.

Main Memory Specific

Compile

Source code in Object Code

High Level Language

Machine
Code
Link
Loader

Library Subroutines
Subroutines

Fig. 13: General procedure for compiling a high level language

program

3.2.4 Very High Level Language

Programming aids or programming tools are provided to help

programmers do their programming work more easily. Examples of
programming tools are:

 Program development systems that help users to learn

programming, and to program in a powerful high level language.
Using a computer screen (monitor) and keyboard under the
direction of an interactive computer program, users are helped to
construct application programs.
 A program generator or application generator that assists computer
users to write their own programs by expanding simple statements
into program code’.
 A database management system
 Debuggers that are programs that help the computer user to locate
errors (bugs) in the application programs they write.

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The very high level language generally described as the Fourth

Generation (computer) Language (4GL), is an ill-defined term that refers
to software intended to help computer users or computer programmers to
develop their own application programs more quickly and cheaply. A
4GL, by using a menu system for example, allows users to specify what
they require, rather than describe the procedures by which these
requirements are met. The detailed procedure by which the requirements
are met is done by the 4GL software which is transparent to the users.

A 4GL offers the user an English-like set of commands and simple control
structures in which to specify general data processing or numerical
operations. A program is translated into a conventional high- level
language such as COBOL, which is passed to a compiler. A 4GL is,
therefore, a non-procedural language. The program flows are not
designed by the programmer but by the fourth generation software itself.
Each user request is for a result rather than a procedure to obtain the result.
The conceptual diagram of the translation process of very high level
language to machine language is given Fig.14.

4GL High Level

4GL Translator Compiler
Program Language Program

Machine Language
Operating
Program System

Fig. 14: The program translation process

The 4GL arose partly in response to the applications backlog. A great

deal of programming time is spent maintaining and improving old
programs rather than building new ones. Many organisations, therefore,
have a backlog of applications waiting to be developed. 4GL, by stepping
up the process of application design and by making it easier for end-users
to build their own programs, helps to reduce the backlog.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Computer programming languages are means by which programmers

manipulate the computer. The programming languages emanate from the
need to program the computer in languages that would be easy for non-
experts to understand and to reduce the enormity of tasks involved in

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writing programs in machine code. Programming languages have evolved

from the machine language to assembly language, high level language and
very high level programming language.

5.0 SUMMARY

We summarise the study of computer programming language as follows:

 Machine language is the binary language and it is made up of only

0s and 1s which represent the ‘off’ and ‘on’ stages of a computer’s
electrical circuits.

 Assembly language has a one-to-one relationship with machine

language, but uses symbols and mnemonics for particular items.
Assembly language, like machine language, is hardware specific,
and is translated into machine language by an assembler.

 High level languages are usable on different machines and are

designed for similar applications rather than similar hardware.
They are procedural in that they describe the logical procedures
needed to achieve a particular result. High level languages are
translated into machine language by a compiler or an interpreter.

 In a high level language one specifies the logical procedures that

have to be performed to achieve a result. In a fourth generation
language, one needs to simply define the result one wants, and the
requisite program instructions will be generated by the fourth
generation software. Fourth generation languages are used in
fourth generation systems in which a number of development tools
are integrated in one environment.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are computer programming languages?

2. Explain the following terms: machine language, source code,
assembler, and compiler.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akinyokun, O.C. (1999). Principles and Practice of Computing

Technology. Ibadan: International Publishers Limited.

Balogun, V.F., Daramola, O.A. Obe, O.O. Ojokoh, B.A., and Oluwadare
S.A. (2006). Introduction to Computing: A Practical Approach.
Akure: Tom- Ray Publications.

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Francis Scheid (1983). Schaum’s Outline Series: Computers and

Programming. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Chuley, J.C. (1987). Introduction to Low Level Programming for

Microprocessors. Macmillan Education Ltd.

Holmes, B.J. (1989). Basic Programming, 3rd (ed) ELBS.

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UNIT 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER

PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Problem Solving with the Computer
3.2 Programming Methodology
3.3 Stages of Programming
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Computer programming is both an art and a science. In this unit you wil
be exposed to some arts and science of computer programming, including
principles of programming and stages of programming.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

 state the principles of computer programming

 explain the stages involved in writing computer programs.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Problem Solving With the Computer

The computer is a general-purpose machine with a remarkable ability to

process information. It has many capabilities, and its specific function at
any particular time is determined by the user. This depends on the
program loaded into the computer memory being utilised by the user.

There are many types of computer programs. However, the programs

designed to convert the general-purpose computer into a tool for a
specific task or applications are called “Application programs”. These
are developed by users to solve their peculiar data processing problems.
Computer programming is the act of writing a program which a
computer can execute to produce the desired result. A program is a
series of instructions assembled to enable the computer to carry out a

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specified procedure. A computer program is the sequence of simple

instructions into which a given problem is reduced and which is in a form
the computer can understand, either directly or after interpretation.

3.2 Programming Methodology

Principles of Good Programming

It is generally accepted that a good computer program should have the

characteristics shown below:

 Accuracy: The program must do what it is supposed to do

correctly and must meet the criteria laid down in its specification.
 Reliability: The program must always do what it is supposed to
do, and never crash.
 Efficiency: Optimal utilisation of resources is essential. The
program must use the available storage space and other resources
in such as way that the system speed is not wasted.
 Robustness: The program should cope with invalid data and not
stop without an indication of the cause of the source of error.
 Usability: The program must be easy enough to use and be well
documented.
 Maintainability: The program must be easy to amend, having
good structuring and documentation.
 Readability: The code of a program must be well laid out and
explained with comments.

3.3 Stages of Programming

The preparation of a computer program involves a set of procedure.

These steps can be classified into eight major stages, viz

(i) Problem definition

(ii) Devising the method of solution
(iii) Developing the method using suitable aids, e.g. pseudo code or
flowchart.
(iv) Writing the instructions in a programming language
(v) Transcribing the instructions into “machine sensible” form
(vi) Debugging the program
(vii) Testing the program
(viii) Documenting all the work involved in producing the program.

(i) Problem definition

The first stage requires a good understanding of the problem. The

programmer (i.e. the person writing the program) needs to thoroughly

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understand what is required of a problem. A complete and precise

unambiguous statement of the problem to be solved must be stated.
This will entail the detailed specification which lays down the input,
processes and output required.

(ii) Devising the method of solution

The second stage involved is spelling out the detailed algorithm. The use
of a computer to solve problems (be it scientific or business data
processing problems) requires that a procedure or an algorithm be
developed for the computer to follow in solving the problem.

(iii) Developing the method of solution

There are several methods for representing or developing methods used

in solving a problem. Examples of such methods are: algorithms,
flowcharts, pseudo code, and decision tables.

(iv) Writing the instructions in a programming language

After outlining the method of solving the problem, a proper understanding

of the syntax of the programming language to be used is necessary in
order to write the series of instructions required to get the problem solved.

(v) Transcribing the instructions into machine sensible form

After the program is coded, it is converted into machine sensible form or

machine language. There are some manufacturers written programs that
translate users programs (source programs) into machine language (object
code). These are called translators and instructions that machines can
execute at a go, while interpreters accept a program and execute it line-
by-line.

During translation, the translator carries out syntax check on the source
program to detect errors that may arise from wrong use of the
programming language.

(vi) Program debugging

A program seldomly executes successfully the first time. It normally

contains a few errors (bugs). Debugging is the process of locating and
correcting errors. There are three classes of errors.

 Syntax errors: Caused by mistake coding (illegal use of a

feature of the programming language).

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 Logic errors: Caused by faulty logic in the design of the program.

The program will work but not as intended.

 Execution errors: The program works as intended but illegal

input or other circumstances at run-time makes the program stop.
There are two basic levels of debugging. The first level called desk
checking or dry running is performed after the program has been
coded and entered or key punched. Its purpose is to locate and
remove as many logical and clerical errors as possible.

The program is then read (or loaded) into the computer and processed by
a language translator. The function of the translator is to convert the
program statements into the binary code of the computer called the object
code. As part of the translation process, the program statements are
examined to verify that they have been coded correctly, if errors are
detected, a series of diagnostics referred to as an error message list is
generated by the language translator. With this list in the hand of the
programmer, the second level of debugging is reached.

The error message list helps the programmer to find the cause of errors
and make the necessary corrections. At this point, the program may
contain entering errors, as well as clerical errors or logic errors. The
programming language manual will be very useful at this stage of
program development.

After corrections have been made, the program is again read into the
computer and again processed by the language translator. This is repeated
over and over again until the program is error-free.

(vii) Program testing

The purpose of testing is to determine whether a program consistently

produces correct or expected results. A program is normally tested by
executing it with a given set of input data (called test data), for which
correct results are known.

For effective testing of a program, the testing procedure is broken into

three segments.
a. The program is tested with inputs that one would normally expect
for an execution of the program.

b. Valid but slightly abnormal data is injected (used) to determine the

capabilities of the program to cope with exceptions. For example,
minimum and maximum values allowable for a sales- amount field
may be provided as input to verify that the program processed them
correctly.

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c. Invalid data is inserted to test the program’s error-handling

routines. If the result of the testing is not adequate, then minor
logic errors still abound in the program. The programmer can use
any of these three alternatives to locate the bugs.

Other methods of testing a program for correctness include:

 Manual walk-through: The programmer traces the processing

steps manually to find the errors, pretending to be the computer,
following the execution of each statement in the program, noting
whether or not the expected results are produced.

 Use of tracing routines: If this is available for the language, this

is similar to (1) above but is carried out by the computer; hence it
takes less time and is not susceptible to human error.

 Storage dump: This is the printout of the contents of the

computer’s storage locations. By examining the contents of the
various locations, when the program is halted, the instruction at
which the program is halted can be determined. This is an
important clue to finding the error that caused the halt.

 Program documentation: Documentation of the program should

be developed at every stage of the programming cycle. The
following are documentations that should be done for each
program.

(a) Problem Definition Step

 A clear statement of the problem
 The objectives of the program (what the program is to
accomplish)
 Source of request for the program.
 Person/official authorising the request
(b) Planning the Solution Step
 Flowchart, pseudo code or decision tables
 Program narrative
 Descriptive of input, and file formats

(c) Program source coding sheet

(d) User’s manual to aid persons who are not familiar with the
program to apply it correctly. The manual it contains a description
of the program and what it is designed to achieve.

(e) Operator’s manual to assist the computer operator to successfully

run the program. This manual contains:

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(i) Instructions about starting, running and terminating the program.

(ii) Message that may be printed on the console or VDU (terminal)
and their meanings.
(iii) Setup and take down instruction for files.

Advantages of Program Documentation

a. It provides all necessary information for anyone who comes in

contact with the program.
b. It helps the supervisor in determining the program’s purpose, how
long the program will be useful and future revision that may be
necessary.
c. It simplifies program maintenance (revision or updating).
d. It provides information as to the use of the program to those
unfamiliar with it.
e. It provides operating instructions to the computer operator.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The intelligence of a computer derives to a large extent from the quality

of the programs. In this unit, we have attempted to present, in some detail,
the principles and the stages involved in writing a good computer
program.

5.0 SUMMARY

We have discussed the following:

 Principles of computer programming

 Stages of computer programming
 The interrelationship between different stages of programming.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between program debugging and program testing.

2. What are the differences between syntax errors and logic errors?
Give examples of each.
3. Is it possible to detect logic errors during program compilation?
Explain the reason for your answer.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akinyokun, O.C. (1999). Principles and Practice of Computing

Technology. Ibadan: International Publishers Limited.

Balogun, V.F., Daramola, O.A., Obe, O.O. Ojokoh, B.A. and Oluwadare
S.A., (2006). Introduction to Computing: A Practical Approach.
Akure: Tom-Ray Publications.

Francis Scheid (1983). Schaum’s Outline Series: Introduction to

Computer Science. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Holmes, B.J. (1989). Basic Programming (3rd ed) ELBS.

Chuley, J.C. (1987). Introduction to Low Level Programming for

Microprocessors. Macmillan Education Ltd.

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UNIT 3 FLOWCHARTS AND ALGORITHMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Flowcharts
3.2 Flowchart Symbols
3.3 Guidelines for Drawing
3.4 Flowcharting the Problem
3.5 Algorithms
3.6 Pseudo Codes
3.7 Decision Tables
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces to the principles of flowcharts and algorithms. The

importance of these concepts is presented and the detailed steps and
activities involved are also presented.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

 explain the principles of good programming ethics through

flowcharting and algorithms.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Flowcharts

A flowchart is a graphical representation of the major steps of work in

process. It displays in separate boxes the essential steps of the program
and shows by means of arrows the directions of information flow. The
boxes, most often referred to as illustrative symbols, may represent
documents, machines or actions taken during the process. The area of
concentration is on where or who does what, rather than on how it is done.
A flowchart can also be said to be a graphical representation of an
algorithm, that is, it is a visual picture which gives the steps of an
algorithm and also the flow of control between the various steps.

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3.2 Flowchart Symbols

Flowcharts are drawn with the help of symbols. The following are the
most commonly used flowchart symbols and their functions:

Symbols Function
Used to show the START or STOP
May show exit to a closed subroutine.
Terminator
Used for arithmetic calculations of process.
E.g. Sum = X + Y + Z

Used for Input and Output instructions,

PRINT, READ, INPUT AND WRITE.

Used for decision making. Has two or

more lines leaving the box. These lines are
labeled with different decision results, that
is,’ Yes’, ‘No’, ‘TRUE’ or ‘FALSE’ or
‘NEGATIVE’ or ‘ZERO’.

Used for one or more named operations or

program steps specified in a subroutine or
another set of flowchart .

Used for entry to or exit from another part

of flowchart. A small circle identifies a
junction point of the program

Used for entry to or exit from a page

Used to show the direction of travel. They are used

in linking symbols. These show operations sequence
and data flow directions.

Fig.15: Flowchart symbols and their functions

3.3 Guidelines for Drawing Flowcharts

 Each symbol denotes a type of operation: Input, Output,

Processing, Decision, Transfer or Branch or Terminal.
 A note is written inside each symbol to indicate the specific
function to be performed.
 Flowcharts are read from top to bottom.

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 A sequence of operations is performed until a terminal symbol

designates the end of the run or “branch” connector transfers
control.

3.4 Flowcharting the Problem

The digital computer does not do any thinking and cannot make
unplanned decisions. Every step of the problem has to be taken care of by
the program. A problem which can be solved by a digital computer need
not be described by an exact mathematical equation, but it does need a
certain set of rules that the computer can follow. If a problem needs
intuition or guessing, or is so badly defined that it is hard to put into words,
the computer cannot solve it. You have to define the problem and set it
up for the computer in such a way that every possible alternative is taken
care of. A typical flowchart consists of special boxes, in which are written
the activities or operations for the solution of the problem. The boxes,
linked by means of arrows, show the sequence of operations. The
flowchart acts as an aid to the programmer, who follows the flowchart
design to write his programs.

3.5 Algorithms

Before a computer can be put to any meaningful use, the user must be able
to come out with or define a unit sequence of operations or activities
(logically ordered) which gives an unambiguous method of solving a
problem or finding out that no solution exists. Such a set of operations is
known as an ALGORITHM.

Definition: An algorithm, named after the ninth century scholar Abu Jafar
Muhammad Ibn Musu Al-Khowarizmi, is defined as follows:

 An algorithm is a set of rules for carrying out calculations either

by hand or a machine.
 An algorithm is a finite step-by-step procedure to achieve a
required result.
 An algorithm is a sequence of computational steps that transform
the input into the output.
 An algorithm is a sequence of operations performed on data that
have to be organised in data structures.
 An algorithm is an abstraction of a program to be executed on a
physical machine (model of computation).

The most famous algorithm in history dates well before the time of the
ancient Greeks: this is Euclids algorithm for calculating the greatest
common divisor of two integers. Before we go into some otherwise

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complex algorithms, let us consider one of the simplest but common

algorithms that we encounter everyday.

The classic multiplication algorithm

For example to multiply 981 by 1234, this can be done using two
methods (algorithms) viz:

a. Multiplication the American way:

Multiply the multiplicand one after another by each digit of the

multiplier taken from right to left.
981
1234

3924
2943
1962
981
1210554

b. Multiplication , the British way:

Multiply the multiplicand one after another by each digit of the

multiplier taken from left to right.
981
1234

981
1962
2943
3924
1210554

An algorithm therefore can be characterised by the following:

(i) A finite set or sequence of actions

(ii) This sequence of actions has a unique initial action
(iii) Each action in the sequence has unique successor
(iv) The sequence terminates with either a solution or a statement that
the problem is unresolved.

An algorithm can therefore be seen as a step-by-step method of solving

a problem.

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Examples

1. Write an algorithm to read values for three variables. U, V, and W

and find a value for RESULT from the formula: RESULT = U +
V2/W. Draw the flowchart.

Solution

Algorithm

(i) Input values for U, V, and W

(ii) Computer value for result
(iii) Print value of result
(iv) Stop

Flowchart

START

INPUT U,V,W

RESULT U+(V^2)/V

PRINT RESULT

STOP

2. Suppose you are given 20 numbers. Prepare the algorithm that

adds up these numbers and find the average. Draw the flowchart.

Solution

Algorithm

 Set up a Counter (1) which counts the number of times the loop is
executed. Initialise Counter (1) to 1.
 Initialize sum to zero.
 Input value and add to sum.

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 Increment the counter (1) by 1.

 Check how many times you have added up the number, if it is not
up to the required number of times, to step (iii).
 Compute the average of the numbers.
 Print the average.
 Stop.

START

1 1, SUM 0

INPUT 1

SUM SUM +1

1 1+1

IS
1 < =20

AVE SUM/

PRINT AVE

STOP

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3. Prepare an algorithm that indicates the logic for printing the name
and telephone number for each female in a file (Code field is 2 for
female). Draw the flowchart.

Solution

Algorithm

(i) Read a record

(ii) Determine if the record pertains to a female (that is, determine if
the code field is equal to 2).
(iii) If the code field is not equal to 2, then do not process this record
any further, since it contains data for a male. Instead, read the next
record; that is, go back to step (i).
(iv) If the record contains data for a female (that is, code is equal to 2),
then print out the following fields: first name, last name, telephone
number.
(v) Go back to step (i) to read the next record.

Flowchart

START

READ & RECORD

NO
IS
CODE = 2

YES

PRINT FIRST NAME,

LAST NAME, TEL.
NO

Note: Nothing indicates the end of records processing here.

4. Prepare an algorithm that prints name and weekly wages for each
employee out of 10 where name, hours worked, and hourly rate are
read in. Draw the flowchart.

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Solution

Algorithm

(i) Initialise Counter (A) to 1

(ii) Read name, hours and rate and number of workers
(iii) Let the wage be assigned the product of hours and rate
(iv) Print name and wages.
(v) Increment the counter (A) by 1.
(vi) Make a decision (Check how many times you have calculated the
wages).
(vii) Stop processing, if you have done it the required number of
times.

Flowchart

START

A 1

INPUT NAME HRS, RATE

WAGES HRS X RATE

PRINT NAME WAGES

A A+1

YES
IS
A < = 10

NO

STOP

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3.6 Pseudocodes

A pseudocode is a program design aid that serves the function of a

flowchart in expressing the detailed logic of a program. Sometimes a
program flowchart might be inadequate for expressing the control flow
and logic of a program. By using Pseudocodes, program algorithms can
be expressed as English-language statements. These statements can be
used both as a guide when coding the program in a specific language and
as documentation for review by others. Because there is no rigid rule for
constructing pseudocodes, the logic of the program can be expressed in a
manner that does not conform to any particular programming language.
A series of structured words is used to express the major program
functions. These structured words are the basis for writing programs using
a technical term called “structure programming”.

Example

Construct a pseudocode for the problem in the example above.

BEGIN
STORE 0 TO SUM
STORE 1 TO COUNT
DO WHILE COUNT not greater than 10
ADD COUNT to SUM
INCREMENT COUNT by 1
ENDWILE
END

3.7 Decision Tables

Decision tables are used to analyse a problem. The conditions applying

in the problem are set out and the actions to be taken, as a result of any
combination of the conditions arising are shown. They are prepared in
conjunction with or in place of flowcharts. Decision tables are a simple
yet powerful and unambiguous way of showing the actions to be taken
when a given set of conditions occur. Moreover, they can be used to
verify that all conditions have been properly catered for. In this way they
can reduce the possibility that rare or unforeseen combinations of
conditions will result in confusion about the actions to be taken.

Decision tables have standardised formats and comprise of four sections.

(a) Conditions Stub: This section contains a list of all possible

conditions which could apply in a particular problem.

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(b) Conditions Entry: This section contains the different

combination of the conditions, each combination being given a
number termed a ‘Rule’.

(c) Action Stub: This section contains a list of the possible actions
which could apply for any given combinations of conditions.

(d) Action Entry: This section shows the actions to be taken for each
combination of conditions. Writing the instructions in a
programming language (program coding)

The instructions contained in the algorithm must be communicated to the

computer in a language it will understand before it can execute them. The
first step is writing these instructions in a programming language
(program coding). Program coding is the process of translating the
planned solution to the problems, depicted in a flowchart, pseudocode or
decision table, into statements of the program. The program flowchart,
pseudocode decision table as the case may be, is as a guide by the
programmer as he describes the logic in the medium of a programming
language. The coding is usually done on coding sheets or coding forms.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Flowcharts, decision tables, pseudocodes and algorithms are essential

ingredients to the writing of good programs. If they are done properly they
lead to a reduction in errors in programs. They help minimise the time
spent in debugging. In addition, they make logic errors easier to trace and
discover.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit teaches that:

a. A flowchart is a graphical representation of the major steps of work

in process. It displays in separate boxes the essential steps of the
program and shows by means of arrows the directions of
information flow.
b. Decision tables are used to analyse a problem. The conditions
applying in the problem are set out and the actions to be taken, as
a result of any combination of the conditions arising, are shown.
c. A pseudocode is a program design aid that serves the function of a
flowchart in expressing the detailed logic of a program.
d. An algorithm is a set of rules for carrying out calculation either by
hand or a machine.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Draw the flowchart of the program which prints

each two-digit odd number N, its square, and
its cube.
2. Draw a flowchart to input the scores of a
student in 8 courses and find the average of the
scores.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akinyokun, O.C. (1999). Principles and Practice of

Computing Technology. Ibadan: International
Publishers Limited.

Balogun, V.F., Daramola, O.A., Obe, O.O. Ojokoh,

B.A. and Oluwadare S.A., (2006). Introduction
to Computing: A Practical Approach. Akure:
Tom-Ray Publications.

Francis Scheid (1983). Schaum’s Outline Series: Introduction to

Computer Science. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Chuley, J.C. (1987). Introduction to Low Level

Programming for Microprocessors. Macmillan
Education Ltd.

Gray, S. Popkin and Arthur H. Pike (1981).

Introduction to Data Processing with BASIC
(2nded). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.