Environmental Science: Theory into Practice -

II.
Ability Enhancement Course (AEC)
 Weather Climate
• Refers to the conditions of the atmosphere at a particular time • Refers to the long-term average weather patterns of a
and place region
• Can change from day to day or even within hours • Changes over a longer period, typically years to
centuries
• Describes the current state of the atmosphere • Describes the average weather conditions of a region
over a long period
• Includes elements such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, • Includes average values and statistical variations of
wind speed, and atmospheric pressure weather elements
• Typically reported for a specific location • Generally applicable to a broader geographical area

• Forecasted by meteorologists using weather models and • Studied by climatologists using historical weather
observations data and statistical analysis
• Can be observed and experienced on a daily basis • Requires long-term data analysis to identify climate
trends
• Examples include sunny, rainy, cloudy, hot, cold, and stormy • Examples include tropical, arid, Mediterranean,
conditions continental, and polar climates
• Affects daily activities, clothing choices, and short-term • Influences the types of vegetation, wildlife, and
planning human adaptation strategies in a region

• Typically measured in hours, days, or weeks • Typically measured in decades, centuries, or even
longer
Greenhouse Effect
• Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor,
absorb and re-emit infrared radiation (longwave radiation),
preventing some of it from escaping into space and warming
the Earth's surface.
• the average temperature of Earth would drop from 14˚C (57˚F)
to as low as –18˚C (–0.4˚F), without the greenhouse CO
effect
2

• CO2 is the most released greenhouse gas, despite the fact that
water vapor is the most prevalent greenhouse gas naturally
existing in the atmosphere
• These greenhouse gases are:
• Water vapor (H2O)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Ozone (O3)
• The terms “global warming” and “climate
change” are sometimes used interchangeably, but
"global warming" is only one aspect of climate
change.
• “Global warming” refers to the long-term
warming of the planet
• “Climate change” encompasses global warming,
but refers to the broader range of changes that are
happening to our planet. These include rising sea
levels; shrinking mountain glaciers; accelerating
ice melt in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic;
and shifts in flower/plant blooming times. These
are all consequences of warming, which is caused
mainly by people burning fossil fuels and putting
out heat-trapping gases into the air.
[Link] activities mean releasing various types of radiation from the sun
from time to time. It includes sunspots, solar flares, and solar radiation.
For example, sunspots release more solar radiation than the regular
portion of the sun, making the planet warmer. So, the sun’s heat
depends on the solar activities driven by the sunspots.
[Link] eruptions - The main effect volcanoes have on the climate is
short-term cooling. Volcanic eruptions pump out clouds of dust and
ash, which block out some sunlight. Because the ash particles are
relatively heavy, they fall to the ground within about three months, so
their cooling effect is very short-lived. But volcanic debris also
includes sulfur dioxide. This gas combines with water vapor and dust in
the atmosphere to form sulfate aerosols, which reflect sunlight away
from the Earth’s surface. These aerosols are lighter than ash particles
and can remain in the atmosphere for a year or more.
• Axial tilt is the angle of the Planet that
occurs during rotation. It relates to the
angle within the orbital and perpendicular
plane. Axial tilt is also called obliquity.
The axial tilt or obliquity is responsible
for the various seasons on the Planet. The
Planet is 23.5 degrees tilted from its
orbital plane. Usually, the obliquity
differs from a minimum of 22.1 degrees
and 24.5 degrees during rotation. The
season gets extended when the axial tilt is
maximum, and the season gets shorter
when the axial tilt is minimum. The
Planet consumes more solar radiation
when it rotates with maximum tilted
towards the sun. In contrast, the Planet
receives less heat from the sun when it
tilts on the opposite side of the sun
• Forest fires can make a green forest into a dark desert. Forest fires release
many greenhouse gases, for example, carbon dioxide (Co2), methane (Ch4),
and ashes. The greenhouse gas, especially carbon dioxide, traps the heat in
space that, increases the temperature of the Planet. Additionally, it spoils
the soil nutrient and creates methane gases that raise the planet’s
temperature.
• Natural Greenhouse Gases
The volcanic eruption, forest fires, and ocean currents generate carbon dioxide and water vapor, greenhouse
gases. These gases can be created without human involvement; therefore, they are natural greenhouse gases.
These greenhouse gases let solar radiation enter the Planet easily; however, they trap the heat in space
without letting them go back. So, the greenhouse gases stimulate to raise the temperature of the Planet.
•Burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon dioxide
and nitrous oxide.
•Cutting down forests (deforestation). Trees help
to regulate the climate by absorbing CO2 from the
atmosphere. When they are cut down, that beneficial
effect is lost and the carbon stored in the trees is
released into the atmosphere, adding to the
greenhouse effect.
•Increasing livestock farming. Cows and sheep
produce large amounts of methane when they digest
their food.
•Fertilisers containing nitrogen produce nitrous
oxide emissions.
•Fluorinated gases are emitted from equipment and
products that use these gases. Such emissions have a
very strong warming effect, up to 23 000 times
greater than CO2.
 What is ozone layer?
The ozone layer is a region in
the earth’s stratosphere that
contains high concentrations of
ozone and protects the earth
from the harmful ultraviolet
radiations of the sun.” Ozone
layer, region of the
upper atmosphere, between
roughly 15 and 35 km (9 and 22
miles) above Earth’s surface,
containing relatively high
concentrations
of ozone molecules.
 What is Ozone Layer Depletion?
• Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present
in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere). This happens when the
chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact
with ozone and destroy the ozone molecules.
• One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is
destroyed more quickly than it is created.
• Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to
high ultraviolet light, which then contributes to ozone layer
depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODS).
• Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
“Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons,
halons, carbon tetrachloride, that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone
layer.”
 Effect of Ozone
Layer Depletion Description
- Allows more UV-B and UV-C radiation to reach the Earth's surface. UV radiation can
Increased Ultraviolet
cause skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans. Adversely affects the health
(UV) Radiation
of animals and plants.
Impact on Human - Increased rates of skin cancer, particularly malignant melanoma.- Higher risk of cataracts
Health and other eye disorders. Weakened immune system.
- Harmful to marine life, especially phytoplankton and zooplankton. - Adverse effects on
Effects on Wildlife fish, amphibians, and other aquatic organisms. Damages DNA in some organisms, affecting
reproduction and survival.
- Harms plant growth and development, particularly in sensitive crops. Reduces agricultural
Impact on Vegetation
productivity. Alters plant physiology and can lead to changes in ecosystems.
Climate Change - May contribute to climate change as some ozone-depleting substances are also potent
Connection greenhouse gases. Indirectly affects weather patterns and atmospheric circulation.
- Ozone depletion contributes to cooling in the stratosphere, which may impact atmospheric
Stratospheric Cooling
dynamics. Can influence the distribution of ozone and other gases.
- Ozone layer depletion leads to the formation of the ozone hole, especially over Antarctica.
Ozone Hole Formation
Allows more harmful UV radiation to reach the surface in those regions.
- Accelerates the degradation of certain materials, such as plastics and rubber. Damages
Effects on Materials
outdoor materials like fabrics, paints, and construction materials
Step 1: An oxygen molecules is photolyzed by
solar radiation, creating two oxygen radicals
Step 2: Oxygen radicals then react with
molecular oxygen to produce ozone
Step 3: Ozone then reacts with an additional
oxygen radical to form molecular oxygen
Step 4: Ozone can also be recycled into
molecular oxygen by reacting with a photon

It is important to keep in mind that ozone is

constantly being created and destroyed by the
Chapman cycle and that these reactions are
natural processes, which have been taking place
for millions of years. Because of this, the
thickness the ozone layer at any particular time
can vary greatly. It is also important to know that
O2 is constantly being introduced into the
atmosphere through photosynthesis, so the ozone
layer has the capability of regenerating itself.
Ozone-Depleting Substances Sources

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-cleaning

agents, etc.

Halons Fire-extinguishers

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) Fire extinguishers, solvents

Methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3) Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons ((HFCs) fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

 Chemistry of Ozone Depletion
CFC molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms and are extremely
stable. This extreme stability allows CFC's to slowly make their way into the
stratosphere (most molecules decompose before they can cross into the stratosphere
from the troposphere). This prolonged life in the atmosphere allows them to reach great
altitudes where photons are more energetic. When the CFC's come into contact with
these high energy photons, their individual components are freed from the whole. The
following reaction displays how Cl atoms have an ozone destroying cycle:
Cl+O3→ClO+O2
ClO+O.→Cl+O2
O3+O.→2O2
Chlorine is able to destroy so much of the ozone because it acts as a catalyst. Chlorine
initiates the breakdown of ozone and combines with a freed oxygen to create two
oxygen molecules. After each reaction, chlorine begins the destructive cycle again with
another ozone molecule. One chlorine atom can thereby destroy thousands of ozone
molecules. Because ozone molecules are being broken down they are unable to absorb
any ultraviolet light so we experience more intense UV radiation at the earths surface.
 ACID RAIN
➢ Acid rain is one of the consequences of air pollution.
➢ Gases produced from burning fuels react with the oxygen in the air and water vapour,
transforming into acids that fall onto the earth's surface as rain.
➢ Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO2)
dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid.
➢ Acid rain has pH of less than 5.6.
➢ Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere
and transported by wind and air currents.
➢ The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
➢ These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
➢ While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as
volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
Soil Degradation: Acid rain can lead to the acidification of soil, making it
more acidic. This can affect the availability of essential nutrients for plants
and soil-dwelling organisms, disrupting ecosystems and agricultural
productivity.
Water Quality Impairment: Acid rain can acidify water bodies, such as
lakes, rivers, and streams. This acidity can harm aquatic life, including fish
and other organisms, by affecting their reproductive, feeding, and overall
physiological functions.
➢ Damage to Vegetation: Acid rain can directly damage
vegetation by leaching essential nutrients from leaves and
needles. It weakens plants, making them more susceptible
to diseases, harsh weather, and other environmental
stresses.
➢ Corrosion of Buildings and Infrastructure: The acidic
nature of acid rain can accelerate the decay of buildings,
monuments, and infrastructure made of limestone,
marble, and other materials. This can result in increased
maintenance costs and the loss of cultural heritage.
✓ Impact on Human Health: While direct exposure to acid rain is not typically a significant
health risk, the pollutants that contribute to acid rain, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides, can have adverse effects on respiratory health. These pollutants can contribute to
the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which can be harmful when inhaled.

✓ Impact on Wildlife: Acid rain can harm wildlife directly by contaminating their habitats
and food sources. This can have cascading effects on ecosystems, affecting populations of
various species and disrupting the balance of ecosystems.
• Man-made causes:
i. Emissions from Combustion: Burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, in power plants, vehicles,
and industrial facilities releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the
atmosphere.
ii. Industrial Processes: Certain industrial activities, like metal smelting and chemical manufacturing,
produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides as byproducts.
iii. Transportation: Exhaust emissions from cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships contribute to nitrogen
oxide emissions.
iv. Agricultural Practices: The use of fertilizers containing nitrogen compounds can lead to nitrogen
oxide emissions.
v. Burning of Biomass: Burning wood and other biomass materials for heating or cooking can release
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
• Natural causes:
i. Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanic eruptions release sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other gases
into the atmosphere.
ii. Biological Processes: Natural processes like decomposition and the decay of organic matter can
release small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
iii. Lightning: Lightning strikes can produce small amounts of nitrogen oxides, contributing to acid
rain formation.
iv. Wildfires: Forest fires release sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other pollutants into the air.
v. Decaying Vegetation: The breakdown of plant material in forests and wetlands can release sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
While natural sources do contribute to acid rain, the majority of acid rain is caused by human activities,
particularly the burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes.
 HOW CAN WE REDUCE ACID RAIN
✓Filter and detoxify the water used by the factories before returning it to the rivers.
✓Reduce the emission of pollutant gases by industry.
✓Encourage the production and use of renewable energy instead of fossil fuels.
✓Reduce the energy consumption of factories and companies.
✓Promote innovation and new technologies aimed at optimising energy consumption
and developing renewable energy.
✓Plant trees to absorb polluted air.
✓Make the population aware of the importance of reducing household energy
consumption.
✓Encourage the use of the electric vehicles and other non-polluting vehicles, such as
bicycles.
 Corals
• Polyps live in colonies on the seafloor as a
cemented calcareous rocky mass, collectively
called corals.
• When the coral polyps die, they shed their
skeleton (coral) on which new polyps grow.
• The cycle is repeated for millions of years,
leading to the accumulation of layers of corals.
• The shallow layers of corals created by the
depositions of corals are called coral reefs.
• Corals are animals, even though they may
exhibit some of the characteristics of plants and
are often mistaken for rocks. In scientific
classification, corals fall under the phylum
Cnidaria and the class Anthozoa. They are
relatives of jellyfish and anemones.
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth
➢ Stable climatic conditions: Highly susceptible to quick changes.
➢ Perpetually warm waters: Tropical waters (30°N to 30°S latitudes; temperature around 20°C) with
narrow diurnal and annual temperature ranges. Coral reefs are absent on the west coast of tropical
continents (Cold Ocean Currents).
➢ Shallow water: Ideal depths are 45 m to 55 m below the sea surface, where enough sunlight is
available. Need good amount of sunlight to survive.
➢ Clear salt water: Clear salt water is suitable for growth, while freshwater & highly saline water are
harmful.
➢ Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of oxygen and microscopic marine food (plankton) is
essential for growth. As the plankton is more abundant on the seaward side, corals proliferate on
the seaward side.
➢ Little or no pollution: Corals are highly fragile and are vulnerable to climate change and pollution,
and even a minute increase in marine pollution can be catastrophic.
Major coral reef sites are seen as red dots on this world map. Most of the reefs, with a few
exceptions are found in tropical and semitropical waters, between 30° north and 30° south
latitudes.
• Basic Terms
Convention
It is generally used for formal multilateral treaties with a broad number of parties. Conventions are
normally open for participation by the international community as a whole, or by a large number of
states. Usually, the instruments negotiated under the auspices of an international organization are
entitled conventions
Ex- UNFCCC, UNCCD, UNCBD
Protocol
A Protocol based on a Framework Treaty is an instrument with specific substantive obligations that
implements the general objectives of a previous framework or umbrella convention.
Such protocols ensure a more simplified and accelerated treaty-making process and have been used
particularly in the field of international environmental law.
An example is the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer adopted on
the basis of Arts.2 and 8 of the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.
Signing and ratification
Signing
The negotiations that precede a treaty are conducted by delegations representing each of the states involved,
meeting at a conference or in another setting.
Together they agree on the terms that will bind the signatory states. Once they reach agreement, the treaty will
be signed, usually by the relevant ministers.
By signing a treaty, a state expresses the intention to comply with the treaty. However, this expression of intent
in itself is not binding.
Ratification
Once the treaty has been signed, each state will deal with it according to its own national procedures.
Example- In India, it is the Executive which ratifies the treaties as opposed to Netherlands which require
parliamentary approval.
After approval has been granted under a state’s own internal procedures, it will notify the other parties that they
consent to be bound by the treaty. This is called ratification. The treaty is now officially binding on the state.
Different conventions have different procedure for coming into force
Example- The Paris Agreement entered into force on 4 November 2016, thirty days after the date on which at
least 55 Parties to the Convention accounting in total for at least an estimated 55 % of the total global
greenhouse gas emissions have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession
with the Depositary.
Why is there a Need for these Conventions?
➢Ratification and implementation of the Convention and its protocols will,
for many Parties, reduce health and environmental impacts more cost-
effectively than unilateral action.
➢It also creates economic benefits as harmonized legislation and standards
across borders will introduce a level playing field for industry across
countries and prevent Parties from competing with each other at the
expense of the environment and health.
➢Factors that harm human health, affect food security, hinder economic
development, contribute to climate change and degrade the environment
upon which our very livelihoods depend.
➢The Convention provides a platform to discuss these interconnections
and takes actions to prevent negative impacts.
 Timeline of Environmental Agreements
1970s 1980s

Pre-1970s: Foundations Global Cooperation

• 1948: Founding of the International Union • Montreal Protocol 1987: Phases out
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). ozone-depleting substances.
• 1962: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring sparks
global environmental awareness. • Brundtland Report 1987: Defines
• 1968: UNESCO Biosphere Conference sustainable development.
addresses conservation science.

Modern Environmental Movement Climate and Biodiversity.

• 1972: Stockholm Conference on the Human • 1992: Rio Earth Summit:
Environment: Establishes the United Nations
• UNFCCC: Framework for global climate
Environment Programme (UNEP).
action.
• 1972: Stockholm Declaration: Outlines
• CBD: Promotes biodiversity conservation,
principles for environmental sustainability.
• Agenda 21: Global sustainable development
• 1973: CITES: Regulates trade in endangered
action plan.
species.
• 1997: Kyoto Protocol: Sets binding targets for
emissions reduction.
1970s
1990s
 2020s
2000s
Renewed Action
Expanding Goals 2021: Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26):
• 2000: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Strengthens emission reduction targets.
Include environmental sustainability. 2022: Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity
• 2001: Stockholm Convention: Restricts harmful Framework: Aims to protect 30% of Earth's land
chemicals. and oceans by 2030.
• 2009: Copenhagen Accord: Reaffirms 2023: UN High Seas Treaty: Protects marine
commitment to limit warming to below 2°C. biodiversity in international waters.

Historic Commitments
Paris Agreement (2015): Targets limiting global
warming to 1.5°C–2°C.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015):
Include climate action and biodiversity goals.
Kigali Amendment (2016): Reduces
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
2010s:
• Intense competition over limited
carbon space
• INDC<<Desired carbon reduction
• Danger of exhausting carbon
space by 25-30 years
Climate Change Reducing Emissions
Issue of will!, NOT
capacity
Cost ? Shifting to low
carbon paths will
benefit us by >1.8
2.6 trillion per 0.5 trillion per year trillion
year
 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development
• The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the 'Earth
Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992.
• This global conference, held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment
Conference in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists,
representatives of the media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive
effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment.
• A 'Global Forum' of NGOs was also held in Rio de Janeiro at the same time, bringing together an
unprecedented number of NGO representatives, who presented their own vision of the world's future in
relation to the environment and socio-economic development.
• The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and environmental factors are
interdependent and evolve together, and how success in one sector requires action in other sectors to be
sustained over time.
• The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to produce a broad agenda and a
new blueprint for international action on environmental and development issues that
would help guide international cooperation and development policy in the twenty-first
century.
• The Earth Summit was not centred around a single issue, rather it focussed on delving out
a broad plan on how to approach the environment in a fast developing world.
• The following legally binding documents were opened for signature at the Rio Summit-
Convention on Biological Diversity, Framework Convention on Climate Change, United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
• The key documents that came out of the Rio Summit are: Rio Declaration, Agenda 21 and
the Forest Principles
Features of Rio Earth Summit 1992
➢The Rio Earth Summit was officially known as the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED). It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from
June 3 to 14, 1992.
➢The summit brought together representatives from 178 countries. This included heads of
state, government officials, and delegates from various organizations.
➢The main agenda of the summit was to address pressing global environmental issues and
promote sustainable development.
➢The Rio Earth Summit resulted in the adoption of several important environmental
treaties. This included the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
➢The summit produced Agenda 21, a comprehensive action plan for sustainable
development. It outlined strategies for addressing environmental, social, and economic
challenges.
➢The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, recognizing the
differing responsibilities of developed and developing countries in environmental
protection and sustainable development, was reaffirmed at the summit.
➢The Rio Earth Summit emphasized the importance of involving non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders in environmental decision-making
processes.
➢The summit highlighted the need for integrating economic development, social
equity, and environmental protection to achieve sustainable development.
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
• It reaffirmed the Stockholm Convention of 1972 and vowed to build upon it.
• More than 175 countries were signatories to the Rio Declaration.
• The stated goal was to establish new and equitable international partnerships to reach
global agreements on the issues of development and environment.
• Humans were seen as central to any new initiative. They deserve a productive life in
harmony with nature. (Principle 1)
• It affirmed the sovereignty of states to act on issues of environment and urged them to take
steps to reduce harmful practices. (Principle 2)
• The goal is to make sure that there are enough resources left for the future generations for
leading a peaceful life. (Principle 3)
• The Declaration as part of the Rio Summit called for placing environmental protection at
the centre of sustainable development. (Principle 4)
• Global Poverty has to be addressed and regional disparities should be accounted for while
drawing up policies. (Principle 5)
• Special Priority should be accorded to developing and most vulnerable countries. The developed countries
should take a lead in creating global partnerships and providing support to other nations. (Principle 6 & 7)
• Scientific and technical knowledge should be utilised in the production and consumption process to minimise
the damage to the environment. (Principle 8 & 9)
• The states should ensure that all relevant information regarding environmental protection is passed on to the
citizens at appropriate times. They should also come up with legislations and regulations keeping in mind the
local developmental context. The Rio Declaration also asks states to restrain from unfair trade restrictions and
arbitrary policies that might harm other countries (Principle 10, 11, 12).
• The concept of loss and damage should be applied to pollution and adequate compensation provided. They
should also ensure that countries don’t transfer hazardous materials to other countries (Principles 13,14).
• The Rio Declaration also called for more active participation of women and youth in driving change towards
sustainable development (Principle 20 &21).
• It also calls on states to integrate knowledge systems of indigenous communities for environment protection
(Principle 22).
Agenda 21
• The Brundtland Commission resulted in the creation of Agenda 21, a non-binding action plan.
• It was the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
commonly known as the Rio Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1992).
• The number ‘21′ represented the goal of attaining long-term progress in the twenty-first century. It
emphasised the importance of local governments in accomplishing long-term goals.
• ‘No nation alone can, Together We Can’- These words from the Preamble of Agenda 21 underline
the entire spirit of the Earth Summit.
• It is divided into 4 sections- Social And Economic Dimensions, Conservation And Management Of
Resources For Development, Strengthening The Role Of Major Groups, Means Of
Implementation.
• The Rio 5+ conference held during the UN General Assembly and Rio 10+ held in Johannesburg
evaluated the progress achieved post Agenda 21.
Forest Principles
• It is officially referred to as the “Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement Of Principles For A
Global Consensus On The Management, Conservation And Sustainable Development Of All Types
Of Forests”
• The principles were drafted to the conservation and management of forests worldwide. Issues
related to forest management should be dealt with in a holistic and balanced manner.
• The final draft of the forest principles was a compromise between the developing and developed
nations.
• It grants states the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources.
• The conversion of forest areas for developmental activities are the sole concern of individual states
depending on their economic circumstances.
 Kyoto Protocol (COP 3; UNFCCC Summit 1997)
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997.
• India ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2002.
• The Kyoto Protocol came into force in February 2005.
• There are currently 192 Parties.
• USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol.
• Canada withdrew in 2012.
• Goal: Fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to “a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.”
• Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions of greenhouse gases across the developed world by about 5 per
cent by 2012 compared with 1990 levels.
• The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
• Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions.
What is Common but Differentiated Responsibilities – Kyoto Protocol?
It puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically
responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
CBDR divides countries into two categories.
i. Historically biggest polluting developed countries like US, UK, France, Japan, Russia etc. (they are polluting the
earth since Industrial Revolution).
ii. Recently polluting developing countries like China, India, Brazil, etc. (polluting since 1950s).
➢ “Common” Every country (both developing and developed) must take part in the fight against climate change.
➢ “But differentiated responsibilities” Historically biggest polluters should do more compared to the recent polluters,
i.e., responsibilities proportional to pollution caused.
➢ Thus, under CBDR, developed countries like US, UK, Russia etc. must contribute more to reduce GHGs.
➢ They must accept to certain binding limits on GHG emissions.
➢ They must contribute funds towards reducing GHG emissions in developing and least developed countries.
➢ On the other hand, developing and least developed countries should do everything possible to cut down their GHG
emissions. But nothing is binding on them, and every initiative is voluntary.
 Classification of Parties and their commitments – Kyoto Protocol

Developed countries [US, UK, Russia etc.] + Economies in transition (EIT) [Ukraine, Turkey, some
Annex I
eastern European countries etc.]

•Developed countries (Annex II is a subset of Annex I).

Annex II •Required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist
them in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions.

•Annex I Parties with first or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets.
•The first-round targets apply over the years 2008–2012 and the second-round Kyoto targets, which
Annex B
apply from 2013–2020.
•Compulsory binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.

•Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention (mostly low-income developing
Non-Annex I countries).
•No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
•Least-developed countries
LDCs
•No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
• Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two commitment periods:
2008 – 2012 and
2013 – 2020.
• The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol.
• Each commitment period has its own binding targets set for developed countries to reduce their
GHG emissions.
• Nations that miss their Kyoto target in 2012 will incur a penalty of an additional third added to
whatever cut they agree under a new treaty in Copenhagen.
• The Kyoto Protocol emission target gases include
• Carbon dioxide (CO2),
• Methane (CH4),
• Nitrous oxide (N2O),
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
• groups of hydro fluorocarbons (HCFs) and
• groups of Per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
• Flexible Market Mechanisms – Kyoto Protocol
• Countries bound to Kyoto targets have to meet them largely through domestic action — that is, to
reduce their emissions onshore.
• But they can meet part of their targets through three “market-based mechanisms”.
• The Kyoto Flexible Market Protocol mechanisms include:
➢ Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
➢ Emission Trading
➢ Joint Implementation (JI)
Vienna Convention

➢ To protect the ozone layer from

depletion, the Vienna Convention
was founded.
➢ The pact was signed for the first time
on March 22, 1985, by 28 countries.
➢ On September 16, 2009, the Vienna
Convention and the Montreal
Protocol were both unanimously
accepted, making them the first
treaties in UN history to do so.
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion Substances
The Protocol was signed in 1987 and entered into force in January 1989. The protocol gives provisions to
reduce the production and consumption of ODSs to protect the ozone layer.
➢ It phases down the use of ODSs in a stepwise, time-bound manner.
➢ It gives different timetables for developing and developed countries.
➢ All member parties have specific responsibilities related to the phasing out of various groups of ozone-
depleting substances, controlling ODS trade, reporting data annually, controlling export and import of
ODs, etc.
➢ Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities.
➢ However, both groups of nations have time-bound, binding, and measurable commitments under the
protocol, making it effective.
➢ Under the protocol, there is a provision for it to be amended and adjusted according to the new
scientific, economic, and technological advancements made.
➢ The Protocol has undergone nine amendments or revisions.
➢ The governance body for the protocol is the Meeting of the Parties. Technical support is given by the
Open-ended Working Group. Both meet once every year.
➢ The Parties are aided by the Ozone Secretariat, which is based at the headquarters of the UN
Environment Programme (UNEP) in Nairobi.
➢ It has been ratified by 197 Parties (196 member states of the UN plus the EU) making it the first United
Nations treaty to be ratified by every country in the world.
➢ The ODSs regulated by the Protocol are listed in:
✓ Annex A: CFCs, halons
✓ Annex B: other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform
✓ Annex C: HCFCs
✓ Annex E: Methyl bromide
✓ Annex F: HFCs
➢ Multilateral Fund: The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol was set
up in 1991 to help developing countries comply with the provision of the Protocol. This is under
Article 10 mentioned above.
➢ It provides financial and technical assistance to developing member countries whose yearly per
capita consumption and production of ODSs is less than 0.3 kg.
➢ The activities of the Fund are implemented by four bodies:
✓ UNEP
✓ UN Development Programme (UNDP)
✓ UN Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO)
✓ World Bank
• The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol calls for the phase-down of hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) and their replacement with hydrofluoro olefin (HFO) refrigerants.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), also referred to as
the Biodiversity Convention or the United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity (UNCBD), is a multilateral treaty.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legal
instrument that has been ratified by 196 countries for "the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources."
• Its overarching goal is to encourage actions that will lead to a more sustainable
future. All habitats, species, and genetic resources are covered by the
agreement.
• The Convention was made available for signature during the Rio de Janeiro Earth
Summit on June 5, 1992, and it became effective on December 29, 1993.
• The only UN member state that has not ratified the Convention is the United
States.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity addresses biodiversity on all levels, including
ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
• It also includes biotechnology, such as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Indeed, it
encompasses all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity
and its role in development, ranging from science, politics, and education to agriculture,
business, and culture, among other things.
• The Conference of the Parties is the CBD's governing body (COP).
• Every two years, the ultimate authority of all governments (or Parties) that have ratified
the treaty meets to review progress, set priorities, and commit to work plans.
• The Nagoya Protocol and the Cartagena Protocol are two add-on accords.
Cartagena Protocol
• An international agreement called the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the
Convention on Biological Diversity regulates the transfer of living modified
organisms (LMOs) brought about by contemporary biotechnology from one nation
to another.
• As an addition to the CBD, it was enacted on January 29th, 2000, and went into
effect on September 11th, 2003.
Nagoya Protocol
• Another additional agreement to the CBD is the Nagoya Protocol on Access to
Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from their
Utilization (ABS).
• It offers a clear legal framework for the efficient realization of one of the three
goals of the CBD: the equitable and fair distribution of gains attributable to the use
of genetic resources.
• The Nagoya Protocol was adopted in Nagoya, Japan, on October 29, 2010, and it
came into effect on October 12, 2014.
What are wetlands?

As per the broad definition of the Ramsar Convention, “Wetlands are “areas of marsh, fen, peatland
or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed
six metres.”

Examples of Wetlands are:

Marine and coastal areas

Estuaries
Lakes and rivers
Marshes and peatlands
Groundwater and human-made wetlands such as rice paddies, shrimp ponds, and reservoirs
The convention works on three pillars that define the purpose of the Ramsar Convention:

[Link] Use – To work towards the wise use of all wetlands

[Link] of Wetlands of International Importance – Designate suitable wetlands under the
Ramsar List to effectively manage those
[Link] Cooperation – To bring cooperation internationally over the
transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species.
• Ramsar Sites are wetlands designated internationally necessary under the
Ramsar Convention, recognising their ecological, cultural, and socio-
economic value. These sites are chosen based on specific criteria to protect
globally significant wetland habitats and species.
• Unique Wetlands: Sites that contain rare or unique examples of natural or
near-natural wetland ecosystems.
• Biodiversity: Wetlands that support vulnerable, endangered, or critically
endangered species or provide critical habitats for such species.
• Waterfowl Populations: Sites that regularly support large numbers of
waterfowl, especially during migration, breeding, or wintering periods.
• Species Support: Wetlands that support plant or animal species at a critical
stage in their life cycles or provide refuge during adverse conditions.
• Fish and Aquatic Life: Sites crucial for fish populations, especially for
breeding, spawning, and nursery grounds.
 Chemical Weapons Convention
• It is a multilateral treaty banning chemical weapons and requiring their destruction.
• It was open for signing from 1993 and became effective from 1997.
• Members: 193 member states. Egypt, North Korea, and South Sudan have neither signed
nor ratified the CWC.
• Implementing Body: The OPCW implements CWC, which is headquartered in The Hague,
with a mission to achieve a world free of chemical weapons.
• It conducts audits of chemical facilities globally. It is more comprehensive than the 1925
Geneva Protocol.
• It prohibits:
❖Development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transferring & use of
chemical weapons.
❖Assisting other States to indulge in activities that the CWC prohibits.
❖Using riot-control devices as ‘warfare methods”
 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
➢ UNEP is an agency of the United Nations.
➢ It coordinates the UN’s environmental activities.
➢ It assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices.
➢ It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 1972.
➢ It has overall responsibility for environmental problems among United Nations agencies.
➢ Addressing climate change or combating desertification, are overseen by other UN organizations, like the
UNFCCC and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
➢ UNEP’s activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems,
environmental governance and green economy.
➢ The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
➢ UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and
the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol.
➢ It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.
• UNEP has registered several successes, such as the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and the 2012
Minamata Convention, a treaty to limit toxic mercury.
• UNEP has sponsored the development of solar loan programmes.
• The solar loan programme sponsored by UN Environment helped finance solar power systems in
India.
Important Reports by UNEP
➢ Emission Gap Report,
➢ Global Environment Outlook,
➢ Frontiers,
➢ Invest into Healthy Planet.
Major Programmes of the UNEP
➢ Clean up the World
➢ Billion Tree Campaign
➢ World Environment Day (June 5th)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna & Flora (CITES)
▪ CITES is also known as the Washington Convention.
▪ It is an international agreement (multilateral treaty) between governments.
▪ It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted by members of IUCN in 1963. It entered into
force in 1975.
▪ Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does
not threaten their survival.
▪ Parties to CITES
▪ States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention are known as Parties.
▪ CITES is legally binding on the Parties. However, it does not take the place of national
laws.
▪ It only provides a framework to be respected by each Party. The parties need to adopt their
own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.
Protection offered to species by CITES
• CITES accords varying degree of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants.
• The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to the degree of protection
they need.
Appendices I and II
• Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction.
• Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
• Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade
must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
• At each regular meeting of the CoP, Parties submit proposals to amend these two Appendices.
• Those amendment proposals are discussed and then submitted to a vote.
Appendix III
• This Appendix contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other
CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.
 National Action Plan on Climate Change
Year 2008
Nodal Ministry Prime Minister’s Office (implemented through respective ministries for each mission)

Original 8 Missions National Solar Mission

National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
National Water Mission
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

National Mission for a Green India

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

9th Mission National Electric Mobility Mission – promotes electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce fossil fuel dependence
and emissions
National Solar Mission
Governed by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, this mission was launched in 2010. Its main aim is to
increase the share of solar energy in India’s power mix and reach grid parity with coal-based thermal power by 2030.
➢ The mission encourages research and development (R&D) to make solar technology better and cheaper.
➢ It promotes local manufacturing of solar panels and links Indian research to international efforts.
➢ The goal is to reduce the cost of solar energy, making it affordable and available to all.
➢ Solar water heaters are made mandatory in buildings to boost the use of clean heating systems.
➢ Through the Remote Village Electrification Programme, solar power helps provide electricity to people in villages
without grid connections.
➢ The mission supports and facilitates ongoing research and projects in solar technology.
➢ Ultimately, it wants to develop a strong solar industry in India so that solar energy becomes competitive with fossil
fuels.
➢ India has surpassed the initial 20,000 MW solar power target (set for 2022) and reached over 100 GW capacity by
2025.
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
This mission is under the Ministry of Power and is based on the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. It works to make
energy use in India smarter and more cost-effective, especially in industries.

➢ The mission uses market-based systems to make energy-efficient products attractive and affordable.

➢ Promotes clean fuels, technology transfer, and capacity building for energy management.

➢ Key aim is development with energy efficiency as a priority.

➢ Spreads awareness about the benefits and uses of energy-efficient products.

➢ Ensures a good supply of such products and builds a workforce of energy professionals.

➢ Encourages financing options like risk guarantee funds and contracts that reward performance.

➢ Introduces monitoring and evaluation systems to track energy savings clearly.

➢ Works to fix market failures through smart policies and regulations.

➢ Focuses on areas such as energy, efficiency, equity, and environment

National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
Guided by the Ministry of Urban Development, this mission aims to make Indian towns and cities more climate-friendly and
less vulnerable to climate change.

➢ It looks at energy efficiency in buildings, better waste management, and public transport system improvements.

➢ Encourages the use of solid and liquid waste for energy generation, recycling, and composting.

➢ Promotes alternative transport systems and fuel efficiency standards with better walkways and transport planning.

➢ Calls for a national building code for sustainable construction.

➢ Offers green ratings as financial incentives for eco-friendly buildings.

➢ Pushes for proper water treatment, efficient toilets, less water pumping, and the use of natural gas and alternative fuels.

➢ Advocates for community involvement and technologies that help mitigate climate change.

➢ Develops dynamic urban renewal master plans for future-ready cities.

➢ Strengthens law enforcement and implementation of Urban Development Plan guidelines.

National Water Mission
The Ministry of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation oversees this
mission. Its focus is on better water resource management, conservation, and fair distribution.
➢Works on groundwater and surface water management for homes, farms, and industries.
➢Improves water storage and wetland protection.
➢Reviews and collects data from hydrological, weather, and rain-gauge stations.
➢Encourages research on water use efficiency in all sectors.
➢Offers incentives for water-neutral and water-positive technologies.
➢Plans regular review of National Water Policy for better management strategies.
➢Builds a public database of water resources and climate change impacts.
➢Promotes citizen and state action for water conservation and better use of resources.
➢Focuses on areas with water over-exploitation.
➢Strives to improve water use efficiency by 20%, using better pricing and policies.
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
This mission is run by the Department of Science and Technology to protect the
Himalayan region, its glaciers, biodiversity, and wildlife.
➢Builds strong human and knowledge capacity – experts who study and manage
changes.
➢Invests in institutions that conduct long-term research and track ecosystem changes.
➢Creates evidence-based policies through collaboration between Himalayan states
and the central government.
➢Encourages continuous learning and community linkages to balance development
and conservation.
➢Focuses on setting up a modern centre for Glaciology, standardized data collection,
and resource mapping.
➢Trains specialists in areas essential for sustaining the Himalayan environment.
National Mission for Green India
Governed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, it
aims to restore degraded forest land, increase green cover, and protect
biodiversity.
➢Works to revive forest land with more trees and better forest management.
➢Focuses on joint efforts between public and private groups, and improves
plantation schemes through community participation.
➢Develops plans to manage climate-related forest challenges.
➢Main goals include enhancing carbon sinks, making forests more resilient,
and helping communities that depend on forests.
➢Targets doubling the area covered by new plantations and improving
greenhouse gas removals.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
Led by the Ministry of Agriculture, this mission aims to make Indian farming less vulnerable to climate change.

➢ Plans to develop crop varieties that use less water and resist pests and heat.
➢ Uses both modern and traditional farming methods.
➢ Targets issues like dry land farming, risk management, and the use of biotechnology.

➢ Strengthens agricultural insurance and uses GIS and remote sensing to manage land and soil.
➢ Collects info on off-season crops and prepares state-level agro-climatic atlases.
➢ Promotes low-input agriculture, efficient water use, and high-nitrogen crops.

➢ Develops strategies for dairy nutrition in hot climates and supports micro-irrigation.
➢ Encourages organic farming, minimum tillage, and rainwater conservation.
➢ Provides training and capacity building for farmers.

➢ Promotes the use of bio-fertilizer and compost, while subsidizing chemical fertilizers.
➢ Strengthens the National Agricultural Insurance Scheme for better risk coverage.
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
Managed by the Department of Science and Technology, this mission builds knowledge and
research systems to address climate change with international cooperation.
➢Develops regional climate science through research and partnerships.
➢Uses international cooperation and funding for research and technology development.
➢Supports the Indian National Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) – a
regular stock-taking exercise for climate studies.
➢Creates data generation and sharing systems to keep all knowledge resources accessible.
➢Identifies knowledge gaps, learns from global trends, and selects suitable technologies.
➢Establishes new climate research centres within existing institutions.
Wild Life (Protection) Act, of 1972
• The Wild Life (Protection) Act, of 1972 provides a legal framework for the
protection of various species of wild animals and plants, management of
their habitats, regulation, and control of trade in wild animals, plants, and
products made from them
• The act also lists schedules of plants and animals that are afforded varying
degrees of protection and monitoring by the government.
• India's entry to the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) was made easier by the Wildlife Act.
• Earlier, Jammu and Kashmir was not covered by the Wildlife Protection Act
of 1972. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act now applies to J&K as a result of
the reorganisation act.
• Schedules under the Act:
• Schedule I:
• It covers endangered species that need rigorous protection.
• A person is liable to the harshest penalties for violation of the law under this Schedule.
• Species under this Schedule are prohibited to be hunted throughout India, except under
threat to human life or in case of a disease that is beyond recovery.
• Some of the animals listed under Schedule I include the Black Buck, Snow Leopard, Himalayan
Bear and Asiatic Cheetah.
• Schedule II:
• Animals under this list are also accorded high protection with the prohibition on their trade.
• Some of the animals listed under Schedule II include Assamese Macaque, Himalayan Black
Bear and Indian Cobra.
• Schedule III & IV:
• Species that are not endangered are included under Schedule III and IV.
• This includes protected species with hunting prohibited but the penalty for any violation is
less compared to the first two schedules.
• Animals protected under Schedule III include Chital (spotted deer), Bharal (blue sheep), Hyena,
and Sambhar (deer).
• Animals protected under Schedule IV include Flamingo, Hares, Falcons, Kingfishers, Magpie,
and Horseshoes Crabs.
• Schedule V:
• This schedule contains animals that are considered as vermin (small wild animals that
carry disease and destroy plants and food). These animals can be hunted.
• It includes only four species of wild animals: Common Crows, Fruit Bats, Rats, and Mice.
• Schedule VI:
• It provides for regulation in the cultivation of a specified plant and restricts its
possession, sale, and transportation.
• Both cultivation and trade of specified plants can only be carried out with the prior
permission of the competent authority.
• Plants protected under Schedule VI include Beddomes’ cycad (Native to India), Blue
Vanda (Blue Orchid), Red Vanda (Red Orchid), Kuth (Saussurea lappa), Slipper orchids
(Paphiopedilum spp.) and Pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana).
Bodies Constituted under the Act:
• National Board for Wildlife (NBWL):
• NBWL serves as an apex body for the review of all wildlife-related matters and for the approval of
projects in and around national parks and sanctuaries.
• State Board for Wildlife (SBWL):
• The Chief Minister of the state/UT is the chairperson of the board.
• Central Zoo Authority:
• The Central Zoo Authority consists of a total 10 members including the Chairperson and a Member-
Secretary.
• The authority provides recognition to zoos and is also tasked with regulating the zoos across the
country.
• It lays down guidelines and prescribes rules under which animals may be transferred among zoos
nationally and internationally.
• National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA):
• Following the recommendations of the Tiger Task Force, NTCA was constituted in 2005 for strengthening
tiger conservation.
• The Union Environment Minister is the Chairperson of NTCA and the State Environment Minister is the Vice-
Chairperson.
• The Central Government on the recommendations of NTCA declares an area as a Tiger Reserve.
• Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB):
• The act provided for the constitution of WCCB to combat organized wildlife crime in the country.
What are the Challenges in WPA, 1972?
Lack of Awareness:
Despite being in existence for over 50 years, the Act has not been able to reach the masses effectively. Many people are still
unaware of the importance of wildlife conservation and the laws surrounding it.
Human-Wildlife Conflict:
With the increase in human population and the encroachment of wildlife habitats, there has been a rise in human-wildlife
conflict. This often leads to the killing of wildlife, which is illegal under the WPA.
Illegal Wildlife Trade:
India has observed a significant increase in illegal wildlife trade, which is a major threat to the country's wildlife. Despite
stringent laws, poaching and illegal trade in wildlife products continue to thrive.
Lack of Coordination:
There is often a lack of coordination between the forest department and other government agencies such as the police,
customs, and revenue departments.
This makes it difficult to effectively enforce the WPA and curb illegal wildlife trade.
Inadequate Penalties:
The penalties for wildlife crimes under the WPA are not stringent enough to act as a deterrent. The fines and sentences are
often too low to make an impact on the offenders.
Lack of community participation:
Conservation efforts cannot be successful without the participation of local communities. However, there is often a lack of
community participation in wildlife conservation efforts.
Climate Change:
Climate change is a significant threat to wildlife habitats, and it is likely to create threats to existing wildlife. The WPA needs to
take into account the impact of climate change on wildlife and their habitats.
Forest Conservation Act 1980
The Forest Conservation Act 1980 aims to strike a balance between developmental
needs and ecological preservation. Its main objectives are:
To protect and sustainably manage forest resources.
To regulate the diversion of forest land for non-forest activities like mining, industry
or infrastructure.
To mandate prior approval of the Central Government before any such diversion is
allowed.
To minimize forest loss by requiring compensatory afforestation or reforestation
whenever diversion takes place.
The Forest Conservation Act 1980 lays down specific provisions to regulate the use
of forest land and ensure ecological balance. It highlights conservation while
allowing development only under strict safeguards. The salient features of Forest
Conservation Act include -
• Central Government Approval – According to the Forest Conservation Act, Forest
land can be diverted for non-forest purposes only with the prior approval of the
Central Government ensuring uniform and environmentally conscious decisions.
• Compensation for Loss of Forest Cover – Diversion requires payment of
compensation, calculated on the Net Present Value (NPV), which is utilized for
afforestation and ecological restoration.
• Consultation with States and Stakeholders – State governments and local
communities, including forest dwellers must be consulted to safeguard their
rights and address concerns before diversion is approved.
• Compensatory Afforestation – An equivalent area of non-forest or degraded land
must be afforested as a mandatory condition for diversion of forest land.
• Deemed Forests – The Act also applies to “deemed forests,” i.e., ecologically
sensitive areas with forest-like characteristics, even if not officially classified as
forests.
• Penalties for Violation – Violations of the Forest Conservation Act attract
penalties such as imprisonment (up to 15 days) and fines serving as a deterrent
against illegal activities.
 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
• The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the protection and
improvement of the environment.

• It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing
environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different
parts of the country.
• The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and improvement of the
environment.
Background: The roots of the enactment of the EPA lies in the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972 (Stockholm Conference), in which India participated, to take appropriate
steps for the improvement of the human environment. The Act implements the decisions made at the Stockholm
Conference.
Constitutional Provisions:

➢ The EPA Act was enacted under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution which provides for the enactment of legislation
for giving effect to international agreements.
➢ Article 48A of the Constitution specifies that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
➢ Article 51A further provides that every citizen shall protect the environment.
➢ The Act is applicable to the whole of India including the state of Jammu & Kashmir.
Salient Features of the EPA Act
• Powers of the Central Government: The Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures as it
deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment in coordination
with the State Governments.

• The Central government is also empowered to:

• Plan and Execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
• Lay down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects.
• Lay down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.
• The restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall/ shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
• The Central Government may appoint officers under this Act for various purposes and entrust them with the
corresponding powers and functions.
• The central government as per the Act has the power to direct:
The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or [Link] stoppage or regulation of
the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
• Restriction on Pollutant Discharge: No individual or organisation shall discharge/emit or permit to discharge/emit any
environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards.
• Compliance with Procedural Safeguards: No individual shall handle or shall be caused to handle any hazardous
substance except in accordance with the procedure and without complying with the safeguards, as prescribed.
 Forest Rights Act, 2006
• The FRA, 2006 was implemented to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling
Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights
could not be recorded.

• The Act also aimed to undo the historical injustice occurred to the forest dwelling communities due to the forest management
policies of colonial and post-colonial India, which did not acknowledge their symbiotic relationship with the forests.

• The Act further intended to empower the forest dwellers to access and use the forest resources in a sustainable manner, to
conserve the biodiversity and ecological balance, and to protect them from unlawful evictions and displacement.

• The Act recognizes and vests the forest rights and occupation in Forest land in Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes
(FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations.

• Forest rights can also be claimed by any member or community who has for at least three generations (75 years) prior to the
13th day of December, 2005 primarily resided in forest land for bona fide livelihood needs.
• It strengthens the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood and food security of the FDST and
OTFD.

• The Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature and extent of Individual Forest
Rights (IFR) or Community Forest Rights (CFR) or both that may be given to FDST and OTFD.

• The Act identifies four types of rights:

➢ Title rights: It gives FDST and OTFD the right to ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers
subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the
concerned family and no new lands will be granted.
➢ Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas etc.
➢ Relief and development rights: To rehabilitate in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to basic
amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection.
➢ Forest management rights: It includes the right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any
community forest resource which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.

Issues in Implementation of the Forest Rights Act:

▪ Individual Rights vs. Community Rights: Politicians in some states have predominantly focused on individual
rights, turning the Act into an 'encroachment regularization' scheme. This approach neglects the recognition
and protection of community rights, which are essential for sustainable forest management.
▪ Poor Recognition of Individual Forest Rights (IFRs): The recognition of Individual Forest Rights has been done
poorly, often compromised by resistance from the Forest Department, apathy from other departments, and misuse of
technology. Claimants face hardship during the filing process, encountering faulty and non-transparent rejections and
arbitrary partial recognitions.
▪ Digital Processes in Areas with Poor Connectivity: Implementation of digital processes, such as the VanMitra software
in Madhya Pradesh, has posed challenges in areas with poor connectivity and low literacy rates. This exacerbates
existing injustices and hinders the effective filing and processing of claims.
▪ Incomplete Recognition of Community Forest Rights (CFRs): The slow and incomplete recognition of community
rights to access and manage forests (CFRs) is a significant lacuna in FRA implementation. The forest bureaucracy is
resistant to these rights, potentially impeding the empowerment of local communities in managing their forests.
▪ Limited Recognition of CFRs in Most States: While Maharashtra, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh have made some progress in
recognizing CFRs, this has not been the case in most states. Maharashtra's activation of CFRs through de-nationalizing
minor forest produce is a positive example, but challenges persist, especially in potential mining areas.
▪ Convenient for Conservationists and Development Lobby: Non-recognition of community rights serves the interests of
hardline conservationists and the development lobby. Communities in protected areas become vulnerable to 'voluntary
rehabilitation,' and forests may be exploited for mining or dams without obtaining community consent.
▪ Forest Villages Not Addressed: The issue of 'forest villages' has not been adequately addressed in most states, indicating a
lack of comprehensive implementation.