Microprocessor and Computer Architecture

Microprocessor:
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) that performs the functions of a central
processing unit (CPU) in a computer. It is the brain of a computing system, responsible for
executing instructions from programs through arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output
operations.
The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated
circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in
its memory, and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain
both combinational logic and sequential digital logic, and operate on numbers and symbols
represented in the binary number system.
Modern microprocessors combine millions of small transistors, resistors and diodes
assembled on a semiconductor material to create the key components of a CPU. These
components are arranged into various types of unique computer architecture to perform
computations and run instructions.

How a Microprocessor Works (The Instruction Cycle):

The microprocessor operates by repeatedly performing a basic sequence called the instruction
cycle (or fetch-decode-execute cycle)
• Fetch: The microprocessor retrieves (or "fetches") instructions from computer memory. The
fetch process can be initiated by automatic or manual input. The Control Unit retrieves the next
instruction from the memory location pointed to by the Program Counter (PC). The instruction is
loaded into the Instruction Register (IR). The PC is then incremented to point to the next
instruction.
• Decode: The microprocessor "decodes" the instructions, essentially interpreting the input or
command into a request and instigating a speci c process or computation. The Control Unit
interprets (decodes) the instruction in the IR to determine what operation needs to be performed
and what data (operands) is needed.
• Execute: Simply put, the microprocessor performs the required or requested operation. The
Control Unit sends signals to the appropriate components (like the ALU or registers) to carry out
the instruction. This might involve: Performing an arithmetic or logic operation using the ALU,
Moving data between registers, Reading data from or writing data to memory (requiring use of
the address and data buses), Controlling an I/O device etc.
fi
• Store: The result of the execution is committed to the computer’s memory. The result of the
execution (if any) is stored, usually in a register or back into memory.

Core Components of a Microprocessor:

Microprocessors can complete these processes by combining the main components of a
CPU into a singular circuit.
• Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The main logic unit of the CPU where the actual computation
happens. This is the digital circuit responsible for performing arithmetic operations (like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logic operations (like AND, OR, NOT, XOR,
comparisons).

• Control unit (CU): The CU circuit interprets instructions and initiates their execution, directing
the processor's basic operations. This unit directs and coordinates most of the operations
within the microprocessor and the computer system. It fetches instructions from memory,
decodes them to understand what needs to be done, and then generates control signals to
execute them. It manages the ow of data between the CPU, memory, and peripherals.

• Registers: Registers provide small, fast memory storage used by a CPU to temporarily hold
data and instructions during computational processes. These are small, extremely fast memory
locations inside the microprocessor chip itself. They are used to temporarily store data,
instructions, addresses, and intermediate results during processing. Key types include:
• Program Counter (PC): Holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched.
• Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being decoded and executed.
• Accumulator (often denoted as 'A'): A primary register used to store operands and results of
ALU operations.
• Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address of the memory location to be accessed
(read from or written to).
• Memory Data Register (MDR) / Memory Bu er Register (MBR): Temporarily holds data
being transferred to or from memory.
• General-Purpose Registers (GPRs): Can be used by programmers to store data temporarily
during program execution (e.g., R0, R1, ..., or EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX in x86 architecture).
• Status Register / Flag Register: Holds status ags (bits) indicating the outcome of
operations (e.g., zero ag, carry ag, over ow ag, sign ag).

• Buses (Internal): These are sets of parallel electrical conductors that connect the di erent
components within the microprocessor (ALU, CU, Registers) and also connect the
microprocessor to external components like memory and I/O devices.
• Data Bus: Carries the actual data being processed between the CPU, memory, and I/O
devices. It's bidirectional. The width (number of lines) determines how many bits can be
transferred simultaneously (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit).
• Address Bus: Carries memory addresses from the CPU to memory and I/O devices. It's
typically unidirectional (CPU sends addresses out). The width determines the maximum
amount of memory the processor can directly address (e.g., a 32-bit address bus can address
232 memory locations).
• Control Bus: Carries control signals (like read/write commands, clock signals, interrupt
requests, bus requests/grants) to synchronize and manage operations across the system. It's
a collection of various individual control lines.
fl
fl
fl
fl
ff
fl
fl
fl
ff
Key Characteristics and Speci cations:
• Cache memory: Small amounts of high-speed SRAM memory integrated directly onto the
microprocessor chip (or very close to it). It stores frequently accessed data and instructions,
reducing the time needed to fetch them from slower main memory (RAM) to accelerate
performance. Usually organized in multiple levels:
• L1 Cache: Smallest and fastest, split into data and instruction caches, speci c to each core.
• L2 Cache: Larger and slightly slower than L1, often speci c to each core.
• L3 Cache: Largest and slowest of the caches, typically shared among all cores on the chip.

• Clock Speed (friquency): A system clock generates precisely timed pulses that synchronize all
operations within the microprocessor and often the entire computer system. The clock speed
(measured in Hertz - Hz, Megahertz - MHz, or Gigahertz - GHz) determines how many basic
operations (cycles) the processor can perform per second. Higher is generally faster, but
architecture also matters signi cantly.
• Transistors: One of the main building blocks of ICs, transistors are small semiconductors that
regulate, amplify and generate electrical currents and signals. They can also act as simple
switches or be combined to form logic gates. The number of transistors is a common indicator
of microprocessor power.
• Manufacturing Process (Lithography): Refers to the size of the transistors and circuitry on the
chip, measured in nanometers (nm). Smaller process nodes (e.g., 7nm, 5nm, 3nm) generally
allow for more transistors on the chip, leading to higher performance, lower power
consumption, and less heat generation.
• Processor cores: Individual processing units within microprocessors are known as cores.
Modern processors frequently incorporate multiple cores (dual-core, quad-core, octa-core)
allowing for parallel processing by enabling the performance of multiple tasks simultaneously.
• Word Size: The number of bits the processor can process at one time. This often corresponds
to the width of the data bus and the size of the general-purpose registers (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-
bit, 64-bit). A 64-bit processor can handle larger chunks of data than a 32-bit processor.

Microcontroller:
A microcontroller (MCU) is a compact, self-contained computing system on a single
chip, designed for embedded systems. Unlike microprocessors (which require external RAM,
ROM, and peripherals), microcontrollers integrate CPU, memory, and I/O peripherals into one
package (single chip), making them ideal for real-time control applications.
Across an array of modern applications and industries, microcontrollers have quickly
achieved widespread market penetration and can be found today in many technologies and
gadgets. Any electronic device containing a sensor, a display, a user interface and a
programmable output control or actuator is likely to feature an MCU.
fi
fi
fi
fi
 Some of the more common microcontroller projects, functions, applications, and
environments where they are used include:
• Automation and robotics
• Consumer electronics and domestic appliances
• Medical and laboratory equipment (handheld diagnostic devices, scanners and X-ray machines,
measuring, analysis and monitoring tools)
• Automotive industries and vehicle control systems (powertrain adjustment, multimedia consoles
and navigation software)
• Industrial and production environment controls (heating and lighting, HVAC systems and safety
locking mechanisms)
• IoT devices and systems

Core Microcontroller Components

Since a microcontroller is e ectively a simple mini-computer embedded on a single
integrated chip, it requires many of the same fundamental components as a larger and more
complex computer.
• CPU (Central Processing Unit): This is the "brain" part, similar to a microprocessor, but often
less powerful than a desktop CPU. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and
executes them (performing arithmetic, logic, and control operations). Microcontroller CPUs vary
in architecture (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit) and often use RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computer) designs like ARM Cortex-M, AVR, PIC, or RISC-V.
• Microcontrollers have memory built-in:
• Program Memory (Flash or ROM): This is pre-written permanent memory that persists even
without power. It essentially instructs the MCU on how to execute its programs when asked.
Non-volatile memory (retains data without power) where the application code ( rmware) is
stored. Flash memory is common because it can be reprogrammed electrically.
• Data Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory): This is temporary storage used only when
powered on, for helping to run and calculate the programs the MCU is told to execute. It is
continually overwritten while in use. Volatile memory (loses data when power is o ) used for
temporary data storage, variables, and the stack during program execution. Typically much
smaller than RAM in a PC.
ff
fi
ff
 • EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): Sometimes included
as non-volatile memory for storing small amounts of con guration data or parameters that
need to persist between power cycles but might need occasional updates.
• Internal Oscillator (the main timer of the MCU): This component functions as the
microcontroller’s core clock and controls the execution rhythms of its internal processes. Much
like any other sort of timer, they keep track of time as it elapses during a given process, and
help the MCU to begin and end speci c functions at speci ed intervals.
• I/O (Input/Output) Ports: This consists of one or more communications ports, typically in the
form of connective pins. They allow the MCU to be linked to other components and circuits for
the ow of input/output data signals and power supply.
• Digital Inputs: To read signals (high/low, on/o ) from buttons, switches, or other digital
sensors.
• Digital Outputs: To control devices like LEDs, relays, or send signals to other digital
components.
• (Often) Analog Inputs: Connected to an internal Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) to read
signals from analog sensors (like temperature sensors, potentiometers).
• These are often referred to as GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pins.
• Peripheral Controller Chips (other optional accessories and components): These are
specialized hardware modules integrated onto the chip to handle speci c tasks e ciently
without burdening the CPU core. These are dependent on the task the MCU is required to
perform.
• Timers/Counters: For generating precise delays, measuring time intervals, counting events,
or creating PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signals (useful for controlling motor speed or LED
brightness).
• Communication Interfaces: To talk to other chips or devices using standard protocols like
UART (for serial communication, e.g., RS232, RS485), SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), IIC
(Inter-Integrated Circuit). More advanced MCUs might include CAN (for automotive), USB, or
Ethernet controllers.
• Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): Convert analog voltages (from sensors) into digital
values the CPU can work with.
• Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC): Convert digital values from the CPU into analog
voltages or currents.
• Watchdog Timer (WDT): A safety feature that automatically resets the microcontroller if the
software crashes or hangs.

Key Characteristics:
• Application-Speci c: Designed to run a speci c program to control a particular device or
system.
• Embedded Systems: Used everywhere in devices like washing machines, microwave ovens,
remote controls, cars (engine control, anti-lock brakes, infotainment), medical devices,
thermostats, keyboards, mice, IoT devices, drones, robots, etc.
• Real-Time Control: Often used in applications requiring timely responses to inputs.
• Cost-E ective: Integrating components onto one chip reduces the overall system size,
complexity, power consumption, and cost.
• Low Power Consumption: Many microcontrollers are optimized for low power, making them
suitable for battery-operated devices.

Microprocessor vs Microcontrollers
Microprocessors: The processing core. Requires external chips for RAM, ROM/Flash, I/O ports,
and peripherals. Forms the heart of general-purpose computers (desktops, laptops, servers).
More powerful, exible, but results in larger, more complex, and power-hungry systems.
• Are much more complex and versatile in terms of function range, and intended for use in more
general computing (as opposed to in specialised one-task devices)
• Have much faster processor (clock) speeds than MCUs, often measured in gigahertz (GHz)
rather than Hz
• Are challenging and expensive to manufacture, unlike relatively simple and cheap
microcontrollers
fl
ff
fl
fi
fi
ff
fi
fi
fi
fi
ffi
 • Require far more external components (RAM, I/O ports, data storage, EEPROM or ash
memory) to operate, none of which are integrated into the MP and must be bought and
connected separately
• Have a considerably higher power draw and are subsequently much less cost-e ective to run
continually

Microcontrollers: CPU + Memory + I/O + Peripherals on a single chip. A self-contained system

optimized for speci c control tasks in embedded applications. Generally less powerful
computationally but highly integrated and e cient for its intended purpose.
• Are an entirely self-contained unit that contains a very simple CPU or microprocessor
• Are used for a single speci c application, as pre-programmed by the user
• Are not especially powerful in performance terms; typically, they only draw a small amount of
power and contain little in terms of integrated data storage capacity
• Need to be programmed by the operator to perform any meaningful role
• Cannot operate outside of their speci cally programmed remit (the code written for them - and
the quality of it - will entirely de ne their performance)
• Are generally meant for use in speci c devices or appliances designed to perform one task
repeatedly

Types of Microprocessors and Uses

Microprocessors range in power, performance, architecture methodologies, size, energy
consumption and many other variables and are designed for all sorts of applications. General-
purpose microprocessors are common in personal computers and mobile devices, while
specialized high-performance units like Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) are designed for
demanding tasks like audio, speech, video and image processing.
• General-purpose microprocessors: These versatile microprocessors are found in a wide
range of common applications and devices, such as laptops and servers. e.g., Intel Core series,
AMD Ryzen series.
• Microcontrollers: Although it is more accurate to say that microcontrollers contain
microprocessors, these types of chips also feature all the additional components necessary for
a functional computer, namely built-in memory. Microcontrollers function like microcomputers
and are preferred for controlling speci c elements within embedded computer systems. Small,
low-power microcontrollers do not require complex operating systems to run and are commonly
used in the automotive industry to optimize Engine Control Units (ECUs), Advanced Driver-
Assistance Systems (ADAS) and infotainment units, as well as a vast range of consumer
electronic devices and even industrial automation.
• Digital signal processors (DSPs): DSPs are specialized for high-speed numeric calculations
and are often used for demanding tasks like audio processing, telecommunications and image
processing. They might also be found in applications requiring the interpretation of analog to
digital signals, such as weather sensors. DSPs are commonly used in military applications like
surveillance drones and other autonomous aircraft.
• Application-speci c integrated circuits (ASICs): ASIC microprocessors are designed for
speci c tasks and are customized to meet the speci c demands of various applications. Some
examples of ASIC microprocessors include custom chips for game consoles or cryptocurrency
mining. DSPs, GPUs and other types of specialized microprocessors are technically ASICs as
well.
• Graphics processing units (GPUs): GPU microprocessors are specially designed for the
demanding task of rendering digital video and graphics requiring high-powered performance
and parallel processing. Critically important for high-end gaming, powerful GPU
microprocessors are also commonly used in machine learning, cryptocurrency mining and are
known for high power consumption.
• Network processors: A type of ASIC microprocessor speci cally optimized for processing
network data packets most frequently used in telecom switches, routers and network security
devices.
• Coprocessors: Coprocessors, such as oating-point units (FPUs), are designed to provide
auxiliary support for a system’s main CPU to boost performance during certain demanding
tasks, such as carrying out advanced scienti c calculations or complicated mathematical
formulas.
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fl
ffi
fi
fi
fi
ff
fl
• System on a Chip (SoC): Integrates almost all components of a computer system (CPU cores,
GPU, memory controllers, I/O controllers, often RAM, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) onto a single chip.
Dominant in smartphones, tablets, and embedded systems.

Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

CISC or Complex Instruction Set Computer is a computer architecture where instructions
are such that a single instruction can execute multiple low level operations like loading from
memory, storing into memory or an arithmetic operation etc. It has multiple addressing nodes
within single instruction. CISC makes use of very few registers.

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

RISC or Reduced Instruction Set Computer is a computer architecture where instructions
are simple and designed to get executed quickly. Instructions get completed in one clock cycle
this is because of the optimization of instructions and pipelining (a technique that allows for
simultaneous execution of parts, or stages, of instructions to more e ciently process
instructions). RISC makes use of multiple registers to avoid large interactions with memory. It has
few addressing nodes.

Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC)

EPIC or Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing permits computer to execute instructions
parallel using compilers. It allows complex instructions execution without using higher clock
frequencies. EPIC encodes its instruction into 128 bit bundles. Each bundle contains three
instructions which are encoded in 41 bits each and a 5-bit template eld (contains information
about types of instructions in bundle and which instructions can be executed in parallel).

Computer Architecture:
Computer Architecture is a description of the structure of a computer system made from
component parts. It can sometimes be a high-level description that ignores details of the
implementation. At a more detailed level, the description may include the instruction set
architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation.
Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the computer or
Processor to be speci c. It deals with details like physical memory, ISA (Instruction Set
Architecture) of the processor, the number of bits used to represent the data types, Input Output
mechanism and technique for addressing memories.
Every computer system is bult according to a pre-established set of rules called
architecture. The architecture outlines the organization of the system and describes how it works,
focusing on the processor, the memory unit, input and output devices, and very often the
network, too. There are di erent types of architectures, among which the most popular are the
Von Neumann architecture and the Harvard architecture.

Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann Architecture is a digital computer architecture whose design is based on the
concept of stored program computers where program data and instruction data are stored in the
same memory. This architecture was designed by John Von Neumann in 1945.
• In this architecture, data and instructions are stored in a single set of main memory.
• Instruction fetch and data operation cannot occur at the same time because they share a
common bus.
• The control unit reads program instruction, decodes instruction for ALU and determines the
sequence of instruction to be executed.
• The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations.
fi
ff
fi
ffi
 Advantages
• Simplicity: The fact that all data and instructions are stored in a single memory space helps the
process of designing a computer system as there is no need to create complicated systems of
routing since pathways may coincide.
• Cost-E ective: A smaller number of components is needed as compared to the other
architectural designs hence more economical.
• Flexibility: A program can Always be changed or altered without experiencing a change in some
underlying physical aspects such as the circuitry.

Disadvantages
• Bottleneck Issues: The shared bus can be a problem because the data and control instructions
cannot be obtained simultaneously and therefore it becomes slow.
• Memory Corruption: Since the data and instructions reside in the same memory, then there is a
temptation of one erasing the other thereby producing system faults.

Harvard Architecture
Harvard Architecture is the computer architecture that contains separate storage and
separate buses (signal path) for instruction and data. It was basically developed to overcome the
bottleneck of Von Neumann’s Architecture.
• Separate memory spaces
• Fixed instruction length
• Parallel instruction and data access
• More e cient memory usage
• Suitable for embedded systems
• Limited exibility
ffi
ff
fl
 Advantages of Harvard Architecture
• Faster Processing: The availability of two buses for data and instructions avoids a problem of
contention where only one bus is used and this enhances the velocity of the system.
• Improved Security: In this way the chance of memory corruption is at least cut in half since
data is not stored in the same locations as instructions.
• E cient Use of Resources: It enables the use of di erent memory for data and for instructions
of di erent sizes as this help in optimal utilization of the buses and other resources.

Disadvantages of Harvard Architecture

• Complexity: The design and the implementation of this type are more intricate, thus
necessitating other hardware facilities.
• Higher Cost: Since the concept of Harvard architecture calls for two sets of memory and two
separate buses, their implementation costs are comparatively high than Von Neumann
architecture.
• Less Flexibility Competitors : Changing or even improving the system can also be a little tricky
because of the di erent memory regions.

Computer Organization:
A computer system's organization involves how its components (like the CPU, memory,
and input/output devices) are connected and interact to execute programs. This includes the
hardware implementation of the instruction set architecture and how operational attributes are
linked to meet the architecture's requirements.
Computer Organization is realization of what is speci ed by the computer architecture. It
deals with how operational attributes are linked together to meet the requirements speci ed by
computer architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details, control signals,
peripherals.

Evolution of Microprocessor
ffi
ff
ff
ff
fi
fi
 The microprocessor has a rich and transformative history, evolving from simple 4-bit
chips to powerful 64-bit multicore processors. The evolution of the microprocessor is dependent
on the development of integrated circuit technology from small-scale integration (SSI) to Giga
Scale Integration (GSI).
Data Bus Address Max Addressable
S.N. Year Microprocessor Model Notes
Width Bus Width Memory
1 1971 Intel 4004 4-bit 12-bit 4 KB First microprocessor
2 1972 Intel 8008 8-bit 14-bit 16 KB Early 8-bit chip
3 1974 Intel 8080 8-bit 16-bit 64 KB Popular in early computing
Used in many home
4 1976 Zilog Z80 8-bit 16-bit 64 KB
computers
5 1978 Intel 8086 16-bit 20-bit 1 MB Beginning of x86 family
6 1979 Intel 8088 8-bit 20-bit 1 MB IBM PC used this
7 1982 Intel 80286 16-bit 24-bit 16 MB Protected mode introduced
8 1985 Intel 80386 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB First 32-bit x86 CPU
9 1989 Intel 80486 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB Built-in FPU and cache
64-bit
10 1993 Intel Pentium 32-bit 4 GB Dual pipelines, MMX
(ext.)
11 1995 Intel Pentium Pro 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB Server-oriented design
12 1997 Intel Pentium II 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB Slot 1 packaging
13 1998 Intel Celeron (1st Gen) 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB Budget version of Pentium II
14 1999 Intel Pentium III 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB SSE instruction set
Up to 256 TB
15 2000 Intel Pentium IV 64-bit 36–48-bit High clock speed
(PAE/64-bit OS)
16 2001 Intel Itanium 64-bit 50-bit 1 PB+ EPIC architecture, not x86
17 2003 AMD Athlon 64 64-bit 40-bit 1 TB First x86-64 CPU
18 2006 Intel Core 2 Duo 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB Ef cient dual-core
Intel Core i7
19 2008 64-bit 36–48-bit Up to 256 TB High-end desktop CPUs
(Nehalem)

20 2010 Intel Core i3 (1st Gen) 64-bit 36–48-bit Up to 64 GB Entry-level dual-core

21 2010 Intel Core i5 (1st Gen) 64-bit 36–48-bit Up to 128 GB Mainstream quad-core

ARM-based SoC, uni ed

22 2020 Apple M1 (ARM SoC) 64-bit 48-bit 256 TB
memory

4-bit Microprocessor:
The INTEL 4004/4040 was invented in the year 1971 by Stanley Mazor & Ted Ho . The clock
speed of this microprocessor is 740 KHz. The number of transistors used in this microprocessor is
2,300 and instruction per second is 60K. The number of pins of this microprocessor is 16.

8-bit Microprocessor:
The 8008 processor was invented in the year 1972. The clock speed of this microprocessor is 500
KHz and instruction per second is 50K
The 8080 microprocessor was invented in the year 1974. The clock speed is 2 MHz. The number
of transistors used is 60k and instruction per second is 10 times quicker as compared with 8008
processor.
The 8085 microprocessor was invented in the year 1976. The clock speed is 3 MHz. The number
of transistors used is 6,500 and instruction per second is 769230. The number of pins of this
microprocessor is 40

16-bit Microprocessor:
fi
fi
ff
The 8086 microprocessor was invented in the year 1978. The clock speed is 4.77, 8 & 10 MHz.
The number of transistors used is 29000 and instruction per second is 2.5 Million. The number of
pins of this microprocessor is 40.
The 8088 microprocessor was invented in the year 1979 and instruction per second is 2.5 Million
The microprocessors like 80186 or 80188 were invented in the year 1982. The clock speed is 6
MHz
The 80286 microprocessor was invented in the year 1982. The clock speed is 8 MHz. The number
of transistors used is 134000 and instruction per second is 4 Million. The number of pins of this
microprocessor is 68

32-bit Microprocessor
The Intel 80386 microprocessor was invented in the year 1986. The clock speed is 16 MHz to 33
MHz. The number of transistors used is 275000. The number of pins of this microprocessor is 132
14X14 PGA
The Intel 80486 microprocessor was invented in the year1986. The clock speed is 16MHz to 100
MHz. The number of transistors used is 1.2 Million transistors and instruction per second is 8 KB
of cache memory. The number of pins of this microprocessor is 168 17X17 PGA (Pin Grid Array)
The PENTIUM microprocessor was invented in the year 1993. The clock speed is 66 MHz and
instruction per second is Cache memory 8-bit for instructions 8- bit for data. The number of pins
of this microprocessor is 237 PGA

64-bit Microprocessor:
The INTEL core 2 microprocessor was invented in the year 2006. The clock speed is 1.2 GHz to 3
GHz. The number of transistors used is 291 Million and instruction per second is 64 KB of L1
cache for each core 4 MB of L2 cache.
The i3, i5, i7, i9 microprocessors were invented in the years 2007, 2009, 2010. The clock speed is
2GHz to 3.3GHz, 2.4GHz to 3.6GHz & 2.93GHz to t 3.33GHz.