1 INTRODUCTION

RADIOLOGY PHYSICS

Radiologic Physics is the study of medical imaging components, technology, and

parameters in an effort to produce optimal imaging results. The goal with studying
radiologic physics is to ensure you get clear images while ensuring the patient is safe
from radiation.

MATTER

Elements and compounds

The universe is made up of elements. An element may be described as a single

substance which cannot be made simpler by chemical methods. When one element
joins with another, or with several others, the result is a chemical compound. For
example, the elements sodium and chlorine combine together to form the compound
sodium chloride, better known as common salt, whilst the gases hydrogen and
oxygen can combine to form that most essential of compounds, water. A slightly
more complex compound is limestone, which is made up of the element’s calcium,
carbon, and oxygen, whilst the tissues of our bodies, though very complex in
structure, are compounds mainly composed of the four elements listed above,
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.

Atoms and molecules

Just as a chemical compound is made up of a number of different elements, so all

material is made up of enormous numbers of extremely tiny particles. The smallest
particle of an element is called an atom, whilst the smallest particle of a compound is
a molecule. In common salt the molecule consists quite simply of one atom of
sodium linked to one atom of chlorine, whilst in water two atoms of hydrogen are
attached to one of oxygen. Limestone has a molecule of five atoms-one each of
calcium and carbon and three of oxygen-whereas the molecule of a protein, one of
the important materials of the body, may be made up of thousands or even millions
of atoms.

A molecule may be split into its component atoms, but when this happens the
chemical properties of the material will be changed. For example, when an electric
current is passed through water the molecules may be split into the constituent
hydrogen and oxygen, two gases with properties very different from those of the
parent material.

It was, for a long time, believed that atoms were the smallest of particles and that
they were indivisible. Now we know that they, too, in their turn are made up of even
smaller, simpler particles. Just as a molecule can be separated into its constituent
parts, so an atom can be separated into its components (though the process is much
more difficult). As with the molecule such separation produces quite different
materials and destroys the properties of the original. As will be discussed in greater
detail later, an atom is like a miniature solar system having at its centre a nucleus
wherein is concentrated practically all the weight of the atom, and which carries a
positive electrical charge. This central 'sun' is surrounded by a number of very
light and negatively charged particles called electrons.

Forms of matter

There are three main forms of matter: solids, liquids, and gases. Any material can
exist in each of these forms, depending on the temperature. For example, water is
normally gaseous at above 100° C, solid below 0°C., and liquid in between. The
fundamental difference between the three states is merely the closeness of the
constituent atoms or molecules. In a solid these particles are packed very close
together, have generally fixed positions, and may, as in a crystal, be arranged in very
orderly patterns. In a gas the particles are widely separated and move about quite
freely, at random. Liquids have their particles closer together than gases but still
have almost the same random movement of particles.

Characterization of matter

All matter is made up of mass and electricity. However, there is a third factor of
equal importance, and that is energy. Though we now know that energy can be
converted into mass, and vice versa, they will in most cases be treated =
independently. Life may be regarded as one manifestation of the interaction of
matter and energy, whilst radiology is intimately concerned with the relationship of
matter with one particular form of energy-radiation.

ENERGY

Energy, in simple terms, can be described as the ability to do work, or as that which
is being expended when work is being done. If we carry a case upstairs, work is
done; if we compress a spring, work is done; if we pull apart a negatively and a
positively charged particle against the electrical attraction that exists between them,
work is done. In each of these cases a force is involved (the force of gravity, the
resistance to compression, or an electrical force respectively), and they have been
quoted to illustrate the fact that work usually involves overcoming a force. The
amount of work done is proportional to the force and to the distance over which the
force has been overcome. There are different forms of energy. Here are some
common forms of energy: kinetic, potential, heat, electrical, chemical, nuclear,
radiation. Energy in one form can often be readily converted into another.
EXPONENTIAL BEHAVIOUR

Exponential behavior occurs in fields of study ranging from the social and economic
sciences to the biological and physical sciences. It occurs whenever the rate of change
of a function is proportional to the function. It can also be described in a slightly
different way. If a quantity changes by a certain factor in a given interval of time,
then there will be exponential behavior if in any other equal interval of time it
changes by the same factor. It describes the growth of money in a bank account due
to interest, the growth of populations, the growth of cells in tissue culture, the decay
of radioactive isotopes, the killing of cells by radiation, and the attenuation of x ray
beams in passing through matter. Since exponential behavior is so widespread, we
will discuss it in detail here and develop the required mathematics using radioactive
decay as our example.

Half-life and exponential decay

A radioactive source contains many atoms and there is no way to tell when a given
atom will disintegrate. However, on the average, one can predict that in a given
time, called the half-life, half the atoms will disintegrate. In the next half-life, one-
half of the remaining atoms will decay. For example, if one had a source of
radioactive gold (198Au) with a half-life of 2.69 days, one could predict that if one
started with 100 x 106 atoms, after 2.69 days there would be 50 x 106 remaining, after
5.38 days 25 x 106, after 8.07 days 12.5 x 106. The exponential decay of such a source is
shown in Figure l-1a.

The exponential decay curve of Figure l.1a can be plotted in such away to give a
straight line. This is illustrated in Figure l.1b, where the same data is plotted using
semilog graph paper, in which the vertical scale is logarithmic while the horizontal
scale is linear.
Figure 1.1. Graphs showing the exponential decay of a source of 108 atoms of 198Au
with half-life of 2.69 days. The vertical scale on the left is linear while the one on the
right is logarithmic.

Time Equiv Time Decay- number of Equiv DF number of

of of decay (no factor particles particles
decay of HL* HL)
t=0 0 0 100 × 10^6
t=th 2.69 2 100 × 10^6 2 100 × 10^6
2 2
= 50 × 106
t=2th 2(2.69)=5.38 2 50 × 10^6 2×2 =4 100 × 10^6
2 4
= 25 × 106
t=3th 3(2.69)=8.07 2 25 × 10^6 2×2×2= 8 100 × 10^6
2 8
= 12.5 × 106
t=4th 4(2.69)=10.76 2 12.5 × 10^6 2×2×2×2 100 × 10^6
2 = 16 16
= 6.25 × 106

The student can show that on the logarithmic scale the distance from 100 to 50 is
exactly the same as from 50 to 25 or, in fact, from any number N to N/2. When the
decay of Figure l-4a is plotted on semilog paper, a straight line must result because
in 2.69 days the source decays from 100 to 50, in the next 2.69 days from 50 to 25. To
plot such a decay on this type of paper, one merely needs to locate the 50% point at
the half-life or the 25% point at two half-lives and draw in a straight line. For
plotting such data, a number of types of semilog paper are available, known as
single, double, triple cycle, etc. In single cycle paper the scale extends from 100 to 10
(or 10 to 1); in double cycle, from 100 to 10 to 1.0; and in triple cycle, from 100 to 10
to 1 to 0.1. We can write this in words as

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

A mathematical relation between the number of atoms present and the elapsed time
can be obtained as follows. Let th be the half-life and N0 the number of atoms present
initially. The number of atoms, N, present after any time, t, is given by:

𝑁0
𝑁= 𝑡/𝑡
= 𝑁0 × 2−𝑡/𝑡ℎ
2 ℎ

1.1
That this relation is correct can be verified by substituting t = th, 2th, 3th. The number,
N, after these times is N0/2, N0/4, N0/8 as expected. Equation 1.1 is easily evaluated
for times that are integral numbers of half-lives. For other times evaluation is
possible using a table of fractional powers of 2 and many calculators.

example

Example: Calculate the number of atoms of 198Au (th-2.69 days) after 7 days if
initially there were 108 atoms present. Compare with the graphical solution of
Figure 1.1b.

solution

𝑁0
𝑁=
2𝑡/𝑡ℎ
𝑡 7
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠) = = = 2.60
𝑡ℎ 2.69

𝑁0 108
𝑁= = = 1.65 × 107
2𝑡/𝑡ℎ 22.60

For the above example the graphical solution is quick and nearly as accurate, but if
the decay time were very long, the mathematical method would probably be easier.

Example: Estimate the number of atoms present after 60 days if initially there were
108 gold 198 atoms in the source.

solution

𝑡 60
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 = = = 22
𝑡ℎ 2.68

𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 222

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁0 108

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = = #𝐻𝐿 = 22 = 23.8 ≈ 24
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 2 2

There is nothing special about the use of powers of 2 in equation 2.2. In fact, from a
mathematical point of view, there is some advantage in using powers of a special
number called e. This number is the base of natural logarithms and has the value
2.718. Using a calculator, the student can show that e0.693 = 2.00 so that equation 1.1
can equally well be written:

𝑡
−
𝑁 = 𝑁0 × (2)−𝑡/𝑡ℎ = 𝑁0 (𝑒 0.693 ) 𝑡ℎ = 𝑁0 𝑒 −0.693𝑡/𝑡ℎ

1.2

Transformation constant

Suppose there are N atoms present at any time, t. In a short interval of time, ∆t, a
certain number, ∆N, of the atoms present will decay. The number, ∆N, that decay
will be proportional to the number, N, present and to the interval of time, ∆t. If twice
as many atoms were present, we would expect twice the number of disintegrations.
Also, if twice the interval of time were considered, we would expect twice the
number of disintegrations. Symbolically these ideas may be written:

∆𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁∆𝑡 provided 𝜆∆𝑡 ≪ 1 1.3

Where λ is a constant of proportionality called the transformation constant. The

negative sign indicates that the number of atoms present is decreasing. Since N and
∆N have the same dimensions, λ has dimensions of time-1.

This equation is correct if ∆t is so small that λ∆t<< 1, so equation strictly only that ∆N
is very small compared to N, i.e. over the time interval, ∆t, N remains essentially
constant. If we make ∆N and ∆t very small we refer to them as differentials, which
are written dN and dt, and our equation becomes

𝑑𝑁 = − 𝜆 𝑁𝑑𝑡

This leads to

𝑑𝑁
= −λdt
𝑁

And then integrate to yield ln 𝑁 = − λt + C where ln 𝑁 is the log of N to the base e

and C is a constant of integration. If we assume that at t=0 the number present is N0,
then substitution of these values in the above equation shows that 𝐶 = ln 𝑁0 . Our
equation then becomes

ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁0 = − λt

𝑁
ln ( ) = −λt
𝑁0
 𝑁
= 𝑒 −λt
𝑁0

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −λt

1.4

This equation is identical to equation 1.2 if

0.693
λ=
𝑡ℎ

which is the important relation between the transformation constant and the half-
life. The mean (average) lifetime of the atoms in the population is represented by ta
and is reciprocal of λ.
1 𝑡ℎ
𝑡𝑎 = = = 1.44𝑡ℎ
λ 0.693
Exponential growth of cells

Suppose a colony contains N cells at time t. The number of new cells that might be
formed in time, ∆t, should be proportional to N and ∆t and could be expressed by

∆𝑁 = +𝜆𝑁∆𝑡

Where X is a constant of proportionality. This equation is identical to equation ∆𝑁 =

−𝜆𝑁∆𝑡 but with a plus sign, so its solution leads to growth rather than decay. We
have

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝜆𝑡

And

0.693
λ=
𝑡𝑑

where N0 is the initial number of cells in the culture at time t, and td is the doubling
time. Exponential growth is shown in Figure 1.2. After many doublings, the rate of
growth of the culture usually slows down as space or the food supply is used up,
and the cells eventually enter a stationary phase shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Graphs showing exponential growth of cells and exponential killing of
cells.

Exponential killing of cells

Suppose a culture contains N cells. The number of cells killed, ∆N, by an increment
of dose, ∆D, of radiation should be proportional to the number of cells present, N,
and to ∆D, thus

∆𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁∆𝐷

Where λ is the constant of proportionality and the negative sign is used since cells
are killed and ∆N is negative. This equation is similar to equation 1.3, and so leads to

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −λD = 𝑁0 𝑒 −D/𝐷0

where D0 is the mean lethal dose equal to l/ λ and analogous to the mean life.

Eexponential attenuation

Suppose a beam of N photons impinges on a thin layer, ∆x, of some absorber. The
change in the number of photons in the beam, ∆N, will be proportional to N and ∆x
and may be written

∆𝑁 = −𝜇𝑁∆𝑥

where μ is the constant of proportionality called the linear attenuation coefficient.

This equation is similar to equation 1.3, so the solution is
0.693
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −μx Where 𝜇 = 𝑥ℎ

The quantity xh is called the half-value thickness, or half-value layer. The reciprocal
of μ is the mean range, xa, which is the average distance a photon travels in the
absorbing material before it interacts in a collision. The mean range, xa, is exactly
analogous to the mean lethal dose, D0, or the mean life, ta.

UNITS IN RADIOLOGY

Fundamental units

Table 1-1 gives some of the important units that are dealt with in radiology. Others
are introduced as needed. All measurements in science are based on four basic
physical quantities: mass, length, time, and electric current. These are shown in the
first section of Table 1-1. The corresponding fundamental basic units are the
kilogram (kg), the meter (m), the second (s), and the ampere (A), whose magnitudes
or size are carefully preserved in standardization laboratories throughout the world.
They are independent of one another since they represent different ideas and thus
cannot be converted from one to another. For example, it would be meaningless to
attempt to convert a time in seconds into a length in meters.

Derived Units

The table also introduces a few of the derived physical quantities that are relevant to
radiology. These are based on various combinations of the four fundamental
quantities. some common derived quantities and their units as mentioned here:

• Force – 1 newton = 1N = 1 kg m s-2

• Energy – force by distance- Nm = 1 Joule = 1 newton meter= 1 N m = 1 kg m2s-2
• Power (rate of doing work) – 1 watt= 1W= 1 J/s
• Frequency – 1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = s-1

Electrical units

Here are some important electrical units

• Charge – unit is Coulomb - 1 coulomb = 1C = 1 ampere second = 1As, the

defining equation is Q=It, where I is current and t is time.
• Potential difference – work done in circuit/ charge passing a circuit= 1 volt =
1V= 1joule/ 1 coulomb= 1 J/C
• Work done in circuit= Charge x potential difference = QV, or 𝐼𝑡𝑉 a special unit
of energy, the electron volt, is energy required when an electron of charge
e=1.602x10-19C falls through 1 volt. Thus, 1ev= 1.602 x 10-19C x 1 volt= 1.602x10-
19J. 1 Mev=106eV=106 x 1.602x10-19 J= 1.602 x10-13 J. The electron volt and its

multiples are extensively used in radiological science.

 • Capacity – ability of insulated conductor to store charge. Insulated conductor
is called capacitor or condenser. When a charge Q is placed on such a
conductor, its potential is raised to V and the capacity C is defined by
• Capacity = charge Q stored on conductor / potential V to which conductor is
raised. C = Q/V with units in coulomb per volt. This has a special name called
farad. 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt= 1C/V. The farad is an enormous capacity,
and one usually deals with capacities some 106 to 1012 times smaller.
• Resistance, R. 1 ohm = 1Ω = 1Volt/1 ampere=1V/1A, therefore V=IR

example
 A potential of 12 volts placed across a heating coil produces a current of 1.5
amperes. Find the resistance of the coil, the charge which passes through the coil
in 1.0 min, the energy dissipated, and power developed.

solution

Resistance
𝑉 12𝑉
𝑅= = = 8 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 8Ω
𝐼 1.5𝐴

Charge
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = 1.5 𝐴 × 1 min = 1.5𝐴 × 60𝑠 = 90 𝐴𝑠 = 90𝐶

Energy (work done)

𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉 = 90𝐶 × 12𝑉 = 1080 𝐶𝑉 = 1080𝐽

Power
𝐸 1080 𝐽
𝑃= = 18 𝐽𝑠 −1 = 18𝑊
𝑡 60 𝑠

Example
A current of 2.5 X 10-6 A flows into a 20.0 X 10-6 F condenser for 20 seconds. Find
the potential to which the condenser is charged.

Solution

Charge placed on condenser

𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = 2.5 × 10−6 𝐴 × 20𝑠 = 50 × 10−6 𝐶
potential difference
𝑄 50 × 10−6 𝐶
𝑉= = = 2.5 𝐶𝐹 −1 = 2.5𝑉
𝐶 20.0 × 10−6 𝐹

Radiologic Units

The four units used to measure radiation should become a familiar part of your
vocabulary. Table 1-6 shows the relationship of the earlier radiologic units to their SI
equivalents
Absorbed dose (D), unit Gyt - Absorbed dose defined as the energy deposited by
ionizing radiation per unit mass of material and is expressed in J/kg. This is such an
important quantity in radiological science that a special SI unit, the gray (Gy) has
been created (Wl)*, to represent 1 J/kg. absorbed dose units is the gray and it is
energy absorbed per unit mass and has units of J/kg or Gyt. Another unit that has
been used for some 20 years and will now slowly be abandoned is the rad, which is
smaller by a factor of 100 (1 Gy = 100 rads = 1 J/kg). Biologic effects usually are
related to the radiation absorbed dose (rad). The units Gya and Gyt refer to radiation
dose in air and tissue, respectively. For a given air kerma (radiation exposure), the
absorbed dose depends on the type of tissue being irradiated.

Exposure (X), unit name: air kerma (Gya) – Exposure is the quantity that is used to
describe the output of an x ray generator. It is the charge liberated by ionizing
radiation per unit mass of air and in SI units is expressed in C kg-1. For many years
exposure has been expressed in roentgens, where 1 roentgen = 2.58 x
10-4 C kg-1. There is no doubt that the roentgen will continue to be used for a few
years in spite of the fact that it is not accepted as an SI unit by CGPM. Air kerma is
Kinetic Energy Released in Matter. Air kerma is the kinetic energy transferred from
photons to electrons during ionization and excitation. Air kerma is measured in
joules per kilogram (J/kg) where 1 J/kg is 1 gray (Gya).

Effective Dose (H), unit name - Sievert (Sv). Occupational radiation monitoring
devices are analyzed in terms of sievert, which is used to express the quantity of
radiation received by radiation workers and populations. The sievert also expresses
a patient dose that accounts for partial-body irradiation. Some types of radiation
produce more damage than x-rays. The sievert accounts for these differences in
biologic effectiveness. This is particularly important for persons working near
nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

Activity/radioactivity – describes the number of disintegrations per unit time of a

radioactive isotope. Since disintegrations have no dimensions, activity is measured
in reciprocal seconds, or s-1. The special unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq) = s-1. The
becquerel is the unit of quantity of radioactive material, not the radiation emitted by
that material. One becquerel is that quantity of radioactivity in which a nucleus
disintegrates every second (1 d/s = 1 Bq). Megabecquerels (MBq) are common
quantities of radioactive material. Radioactivity and the becquerel have nothing to
do with x-rays. For many years activities have been measured in curies (Ci); 1 Ci =
3.70 X 1010 Bq. We will use both the curie Bq and the Curie.

Example

0.05 μCi iodine-125 is used for radioimmunoassay. What is this radioactivity in

becquerels?

Solution

0.05 𝜇𝐶𝑖 = 0.05 × 10−6 𝐶𝑖

= (0.05 × 10−6 𝐶𝑖)(3.7 × 1010 𝐵𝑞/𝐶𝑖)
= 0.185 × 104 𝐵𝑞 = 1850 𝐵𝑞

Example

A patient is given an x ray exposure X, of 5.16 x 10-5 coulombs per kg. Convert this
exposure into roentgens (R), given that 1R = 2.58 x 10-4 coulombs per kg.

solution
𝐶
𝑋 = 5.16 × 10−5
𝐾𝑔

1𝑅 = 2.58 × 10−4 𝐶 𝐾𝑔−1

Therefore
𝑋 = 5.16 × 10−5 𝐶 𝐾𝑔−1

1𝑅
𝑅 = 5.16 × 10−5 × = 0.200𝑅
2.58 × 10−4