Yield Line Analysis

Introduction
Yield line analysis is an analysis approach for determining the ultimate load capacity
of reinforced concrete slabs - closely related to the plastic collapse or limit analysis of
steel frames, and is an Upper Bound or Mechanism approach.

What is a yield line? A yield line is a crack in a reinforced concrete slab across which
the reinforcing bars have yielded and along which plastic rotation occurs.

In the yield line method, a plastic collapse mechanism of the plate is assumed
consisting of
undeformed plate segments connected by plastic hinge lines, called yield lines. The
mechanism must be kinematically admissible(A solution whereby the structure has
reached a point where it deforms without additional loading i.e. collapse mechanism)
over the whole plate and at the boundaries.

Applicable to ductile (under-reinforced) slabs. The following moment-rotation diagram

holds:

 A yield line occurs when the moment capacity of the section has been reached.
 No additional moment can be taken at the section.
 The section can undergo any amount of rotation.

There are two solution approaches in the yield line theory: the virtual work method
and the equilibrium method. Both methods lead to identical upper bound solutions,
and it has been demonstrated that both methods represent in fact the same solution,
but with a different approach .

In the virtual work method, a plastic collapse mechanism is assumed for a given
plate and loading, and the collapse load P is found by equating the work done by the
external loads on the plate to the internal work dissipated by the yield lines during a
small motion of the assumed collapse mechanism.

In the Work Method, the work equation encompasses the whole slab giving a single
value
for the moment in the slab. The Equilibrium Method investigates each region
independently and separate values of moment for each region are obtained. This
method of analysis is really the Work Method presented in another form. Its principal
use is in combination with the Work Method to show the designer which way to move
the chosen layout of a valid yield line pattern in order to get closer to the correct
solution.

The Equilibrium Method considers nodal forces at the junction of yield lines or slab
edges
to maintain equilibrium of regions with the externally applied loads and the moments
along yield lines. In the equilibrium method, the equilibrium of each part of the slab
when acted on by the external applied load and by the forces acting at a yield line is
considered these forces include bending moment, shear force acting perpendicular to
the slab, and twisting moment.

The precise distribution of the shear and twisting moments does not need to be
known- they are replaced by two forces perpendicular to the plane of the slab; one at
each end of fracture line. these are referred to as the nodal forces V (+ve acting
upwards)

Advantages of Yield Line Method

 Simple to use (computer not necessary as in elastic analysis);
 Linear elastic analysis only tells you when first yield occurs whereas Y.L. gives the
ultimate capacity of the slab i.e. what it takes to cause collapse;
 Helps understanding of ultimate behaviour;
 Good for awkward shapes (of slab)

Disadvantages of Yield Line Method

 Requires experience to know a likely failure mechanism;
 Dangerous designs are possible without checking or experience;
 Does not give an idea of slab behaviour in service

The aim of the method is to find the appropriate yield lines.

Assumptions used in Yield Line Analysis

1. The steel reinforcement is fully yielded along the yield line at collapse. Rotation
following yield is at constant moment.
2. The slab deforms plastically at collapse and is separated into segments by the yield
lines. The individual segments of the slab behave elastically.
3. The elastic deformations are neglected and only plastic deformations are
considered. Deformations are along the yield lines and the individual segments of the
slab remain plane even in collapse condition.
4. The bending and twisting moments are uniformly distributed along the yield line.
The maximum values of the moments depend on the capacities of the section based
on the reinforcement provided.
5. The yield lines are straight as they are the lines of intersection between planes.

Examples of Yield Line Patterns

What is a yield line pattern?

When a slab is loaded to failure, yield lines form in the most highly stressed areas and
these develop into continuous plastic hinges. As described above, these plastic hinges
develop into a mechanism forming a yield line pattern.

Guidelines for Choosing Yield Line Patterns

The aim of investigating yield line patterns is to find the one pattern that gives the
critical
moment (the highest moment or the least load capacity). However, an exhaustive
search
is rarely necessary and selecting a few simple and obvious patterns is generally
sufficient
as their solutions are within a few percent of the perfectly correct solution.

Conventions

• Sagging yield lines are solid wavy lines;

• Hogging yield lines are dashed straight lines;
• A fixed support is indicated by double hatching;
• A simple support is given by single line hatching;
• A free edge is given by a straight line.

Rules for Yield Lines:

There are rules to be observed when postulating a yield line pattern:

1. Yield lines divide the slab into rigid regions which remain plane through the
collapse;
2. Yield lines are straight;
3. Axes of rotation generally lie along lines of support and pass over any
columns;
4. Yield lines between adjacent rigid regions must pass through the point of
intersection of the axes of rotation of those regions;
5. Yield lines must end at a slab boundary;
6. Continuous supports repel and a simple supports attract yield lines.

Relate the rules to the following patterns:

 (also try paper-folding)

Fan Mechanism
What is a fan mechanism?
Slabs subjected to heavy concentrated loads may fail by a so-called fan mechanism,
with
positive Yield Lines radiating from the load and a negative circular Yield Line centred
under the point load. It is rare for this form of failure to be critical but nonetheless a
check is advised where large concentrated loads are present or for instance in flat
slabs where the slab is supported on columns.
Corner Levers
What is a corner lever?
‘Corner levers’ describes the phenomenon in two-way slabs on line supports where
yield
lines split at internal corners. This splitting is associated with the formation of a
negative
yield line across the corner which ‘levers’ against a corner reaction (or holding down
force). Corner levers particularly affect simply supported slabs and the figure below
shows the effect corner levers can have on a simply supported square slab.

For simplicity in the analysis, yield line patterns are generally assumed to go into
corners
without splitting, i.e. corner levers are ignored and an allowance is made for this. This
simplification is justified for three principle reasons:
 The error for neglecting corner levers is usually small.
 The analysis involving corner levers becomes too involved.
 Corner levers usually bring out the beneficial effects of membrane action that
negate their impact.
Yield Line Analysis Procedure
Procedure
1. Assume a collapse mechanism by choosing a pattern of yield lines;
2. Calculate the load factor corresponding to that yield line pattern;
3. Repeat for a range of yield line patterns
4. Actual failure occurs at the lowest collapse load factor.

Note that it requires the slab to have the moment-rotation relationship previously
given: it must be ductile.

Moment Axis Notation

With slabs, m xis the moment on the X-face, i.e. the face perpendicular to the x-axis
 A unit width of slab is then designed for the moment per unit width found from
analysis.

From the diagram, reinforcement in the x-direction provides a moment capacity of m x

parallel to the y-axis. Thus any yield line parallel to the y-axis will be opposed by x-
direction reinforcement and hence the m x capacity of the slab. Similarly, yield lines in
the x-direction opposed by the m y capacity of the slab.
Moment Capacity at an Arbitrary Angle
An orthotropic slab has different moment capacities in different orthogonal directions.
This is usual for reinforced concrete slabs. Isotropic slabs are a particular case in which
m x=m y . Thus, we will have moment capacity per metre, m x on the x-face and moment
capacity per metre, m y on the y-face:

Moment capacity in any other direction, α, is obtained by as follows:

In plan:
Resolving vectors
2 2
mα l=mx l sin α + m y l cos α

and dividing through by l

2 2
mα =m x sin α + m y cos α

Johansen’s Stepped yield line criterion says that the yield line is actually made up
of
many small steps in orthogonal directions, as shown. This, enables us to take
the projections of an inclined yield line upon the axes, instead of determining
the
capacity at an angle.

Hence :
Internal Work Done
For an orthotropic slab, there are two ways of calculating internal work done:
1. Take a section perpendicular to the yield line and find its rotation. Then let
internal work done be the moment capacity at that angle times the length of the
yield line and the rotation.
2. Use Johansen’s approach in which the projections of the yield lines onto the axes
of rotations is used. (This is easier)

External Work Done

Consider a general region with loading and deformation as shown.

The work done by the elemental load is force by distance:

Total work done

where

is the first moment of area so

For point loads, it is just the load by deflection under it.

Setting up the problem- Virtual Work Method

The rotation of a rigid panel is linked to the deflection of the applied load:

Therefore, we assume a value of deflection, δ and relate all rotations to it.

To solve, we equate the work done by the external forces in deflecting, to the work
done by the yield lines in rotating:

Example
The slab shown is isotropically reinforced and is required to carry an ultimate design
load of 12 kN/m2. If the ultimate moment of resistance of the reinforcement is m per
unit width of slab in the direction shown, calculate the value of m for the given yield
line pattern.
The slab is simply supported on three sides and is free on the other. Suppose that the
junction c of the yield lines is given a unit virtual displacement. Then

The internal virtual work is therefore given by

The first term on the right-hand side (i) is the work done by the ultimate moment
on the diagonal yield lines ac and bc on the boundary of panel A and is obtained as
follows. We have seen that, for an isotropic slab, the ultimate moment along an
inclined
yield line is equal to the moment of resistance of the reinforcement irrespective of the
inclination of the reinforcement to the yield line. Further, the work done by the
ultimate moment on an inclined yield line is the product of the moment, the projection
of the yield line on the axis of rotation and the angle of rotation of the panel. The
second term on the right-hand side of (i) represents the work done by the ultimate
moment on the diagonal and horizontal yield lines bordering each of the panels B and
C; from symmetry the contribution of both panels will be the same. From the above
argument and considering panel B

Similarly for panel C. (i) simplifies to

The work done by the applied load is most easily found by dividing each of the panels
B and C into a rectangle and a triangle, panel A is a triangle. Then

In (iii) the displacement of the centroids of the triangles in panels A, B and C is 1/3
while the displacement of the centroids of the rectangular portions of panels B and C
is 1/2. (iii) simplifies to

In some cases the relationship between the ultimate moment m and the dimension x
is complex so that the determination of the maximum value of m by differentiation is
tedious. A simpler approach would be to adopt a trial and error method in which a
series of values of x are chosen and then m plotted against x.

Example – Yield Lines not Parallel to Axes

Find required moment capacity to resist uniform loading, w. Assume isotropic
reinforcement i.e., moment capacity independent of direction.
Solution

Equating external work to internal work

Equilibrium Method

The slab parts are in equilibrium under the effect of external loading, moments on
yield lines, nodal forces, and support reactions. For each slab part 3 equations of
equilibrium can be written i.e. 2 moment equations and 1 for forces perpendicular to
plane of slab. Fracture pattern of a slab is completely defined when axes of rotation
are known as well as ratios of rotation of slab parts when mechanism undergoes a
small virtual deflection. for n parts we need n-1 ratios.

For n parts of a slab the unknowns are: moment m, (n-1) reactions between the
rotations of the parts, and 2 unknowns for each part i.e. 3n unknowns (= number of
equilibrium equations)
Formulation of equilibrium equations can be complicated excpt for very simple cases
(see example below)
Example
Isotropic square slab, simply supported on four edges and carying a distributed load q
per unit area.
Example
Appendix- Examples of Other Common Yield Line Patterns
References

1. Dr Caprani's Lecture Notes

2. D. Bauer and R. G. Redwood- Numerical Yield line Analysis

3. G. Kennedy and C. H. Goodchild - Practical Yield Line Analysis