Syllabus

Syllabus content

Topic 1: Number and algebra

Concepts
Essential understandings:
Number and algebra allow us to represent patterns, show equivalencies and make generalizations which
enable us to model real-world situations. Algebra is an abstraction of numerical concepts and employs
variables which allow us to solve mathematical problems.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Generalization, representation, modelling, equivalence, patterns, quantity
AHL: Validity, systems.

Content-specific conceptual understandings:

• Modelling real-life situations with the structure of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series
allows for prediction, analysis and interpretation.
• Different representations of numbers enable equivalent quantities to be compared and used in
calculations with ease to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
• Numbers and formulae can appear in different, but equivalent, forms, or representations, which can
help us to establish identities.
• Formulae are a generalization made on the basis of specific examples, which can then be extended to
new examples.
• Logarithm laws provide the means to find inverses of exponential functions which model real-life
situations.
• Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find unknowns.
• The binomial theorem is a generalization which provides an efficient method for expanding binomial
expressions.

AHL
• Proof serves to validate mathematical formulae and the equivalence of identities.
• Representing partial fractions and complex numbers in different forms allows us to easily carry out
seemingly difficult calculations.
• The solution for systems of equations can be carried out by a variety of equivalent algebraic and
graphical methods.

SL content
Recommended teaching hours: 19
The aim of the SL content of the number and algebra topic is to introduce students to numerical concepts
and techniques which, combined with an introduction to arithmetic and geometric sequences and series,
can be used for financial and other applications. Students will also be introduced to the formal concept of
proof.
Sections SL1.1 to SL1.5 are content common to Mathematics: analysis and approaches and Mathematics:
applications and interpretation.

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 Syllabus content

SL 1.1

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Operations with numbers in the form a ! 10k where Calculator or computer notation is not acceptable.
1 ≤ a < 10 and k is an integer. For example, 5.2E30 is not acceptable and should be
written as 5.2 ! 1030.

Connections
Other contexts: Very large and very small numbers, for example astronomical distances, sub-atomic
particles in physics, global financial figures
Links to other subjects: Chemistry (Avogadro’s number); physics (order of magnitude); biology
(microscopic measurements); sciences group subjects (uncertainty and precision of measurement)
International-mindedness: The history of number from Sumerians and its development to the present
Arabic system
TOK: Do the names that we give things impact how we understand them? For instance, what is the impact
of the fact that some large numbers are named, such as the googol and the googolplex, while others are
represented in this form?

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SL 1.2

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Arithmetic sequences and series. Spreadsheets, GDCs and graphing software may be
Use of the formulae for the nth term and the sum of used to generate and display sequences in several
the first n terms of the sequence. ways.

Use of sigma notation for sums of arithmetic If technology is used in examinations, students will
sequences. be expected to identify the first term and the
common difference.
Applications. Examples include simple interest over a number of
years.
Analysis, interpretation and prediction where a Students will need to approximate common
model is not perfectly arithmetic in real life. differences.

Connections
International-mindedness: Aryabhatta is sometimes considered the “father of algebra”–compare with
alKhawarizmi; the use of several alphabets in mathematical notation (for example the use of capital sigma
for the sum).
TOK: Is all knowledge concerned with identification and use of patterns? Consider Fibonacci numbers and
connections with the golden ratio.

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SL 1.3

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Geometric sequences and series. Spreadsheets, GDCs and graphing software may be
Use of the formulae for the n th term and the sum of used to generate and display sequences in several
the first n terms of the sequence. ways.

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 29

Syllabus content

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Use of sigma notation for the sums of geometric If technology is used in examinations, students will
sequences. be expected to identify the first term and the ratio.
Link to: models/functions in topic 2 and regression
in topic 4.
Applications. Examples include the spread of disease, salary
increase and decrease and population growth.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Radioactive decay, nuclear physics, charging and discharging capacitors (physics).
International-mindedness: The chess legend (Sissa ibn Dahir).
TOK: How do mathematicians reconcile the fact that some conclusions seem to conflict with our intuitions?
Consider for instance that a finite area can be bounded by an infinite perimeter.

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SL 1.4

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Financial applications of geometric sequences and Examination questions may require the use of
series: technology, including built-in financial packages.
• compound interest The concept of simple interest may be used as an
• annual depreciation. introduction to compound interest.
Calculate the real value of an investment with an
interest rate and an inflation rate.
In examinations, questions that ask students to
derive the formula will not be set.
Compound interest can be calculated yearly, half-
yearly, quarterly or monthly.
Link to: exponential models/functions in topic 2.

Connections
Other contexts: Loans.
Links to other subjects: Loans and repayments (economics and business management).
Aim 8: Ethical perceptions of borrowing and lending money.
International-mindedness: Do all societies view investment and interest in the same way?
TOK: How have technological advances affected the nature and practice of mathematics? Consider the use
of financial packages for instance.
1 n
Enrichment: The concept of e can be introduced through continuous compounding, (1 + ) → e, as
n
n → ∞, however this will not be examined.

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SL 1.5

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Laws of exponents with integer exponents. Examples:

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

53 ! 5−6 = 5−3, 64 ÷ 63 = 6, (23)−4 = 2−12,
2
(2x)4 = 16x4, 2x−3 = 3 .
x
Introduction to logarithms with base 10 and e. Awareness that ax = b is equivalent to logab = x,
Numerical evaluation of logarithms using that b > 0, and loge x = lnx.
technology.

Connections
Other contexts: Richter scale and decibel scale.
Links to other subjects: Calculation of pH and buffer solutions (chemistry)
TOK: Is mathematics invented or discovered? For instance, consider the number e or logarithms–did they
already exist before man defined them? (This topic is an opportunity for teachers to generate reflection on
“the nature of mathematics”).

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SL 1.6

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Simple deductive proof, numerical and algebraic; 1 1 1
Example: Show that + = . Show that the
how to lay out a left-hand side to right-hand side 4 12 3
(LHS to RHS) proof. algebraic generalisation of this is
1 1 1
The symbols and notation for equality and identity. + ≡
m + 1 m2 + m m
LHS to RHS proofs require students to begin with
the left-hand side expression and transform this
using known algebraic steps into the expression on
the right-hand side (or vice versa).
Example: Show that (x − 3)2 + 5 ≡ x2 − 6x + 14.
Students will be expected to show how they can
check a result including a check of their own results.

Connections
TOK: Is mathematical reasoning different from scientific reasoning, or reasoning in other Areas of
Knowledge?

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SL 1.7

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Laws of exponents with rational exponents. 1
a m = m a, if m is even this refers to the positive root.
3
For example: 16 4 = 8.
Laws of logarithms. y = ax ⇔ x = logay; logaa = 1, loga1 = 0,
loga xy = loga x + logay a, y ( ℕ, x ( ℤ
x Link to: introduction to logarithms (SL1.5)
loga = loga x − logay
y

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

m
loga x = mloga x 3
Examples: = log168, log32 = 5log2
4
for a, x, y > 0
log24 = log8 + log3
10
log3 = log310 − log34
4
log435 = 5log43
Link to: logarithmic and exponential graphs (SL2.9)
Change of base of a logarithm. ln7
log47 =
ln4
logb x Examples:
loga x = , for a, b, x>0 log5125 3
logba log25125 = (= )
log525 2

Solving exponential equations, including using 1 x

Examples: ( ) = 9x + 1, 2x − 1 = 10.
logarithms. 3
Link to: using logarithmic and exponential graphs
(SL2.9).

Connections
Links to other subjects: pH, buffer calculations and finding activation energy from experimental data
(chemistry).
TOK: How have seminal advances, such as the development of logarithms, changed the way in which
mathematicians understand the world and the nature of mathematics?

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SL 1.8

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Sum of infinite convergent geometric sequences. Use of | r | < 1 and modulus notation.
Link to: geometric sequences and series (SL1.3).

Connections
TOK: Is it possible to know about things of which we can have no experience, such as infinity?

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SL 1.9

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The binomial theorem: Counting principles may be used in the
n development of the theorem.
expansion of (a + b) , n ( ℕ.

Use of Pascal’s triangle and nCr. n

Cr should be found using both the formula and
technology.
Example: Find r when 6Cr = 20, using a table of
values generated with technology.

32 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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Connections
Aim 8: Ethics in mathematics–Pascal’s triangle. Attributing the origin of a mathematical discovery to the
wrong mathematician.
International-mindedness: The properties of “Pascal’s triangle” have been known in a number of different
cultures long before Pascal. (for example the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui).
TOK: How have notable individuals shaped the development of mathematics as an area of knowledge?
Consider Pascal and “his” triangle.

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AHL content
Recommended teaching hours: 20
The aim of the AHL content in the number and algebra topic is to extend and build upon the aims, concepts
and skills from the SL content. It introduces students to some important techniques for expansion,
simplification and solution of equations. Complex numbers are introduced and students will extend their
knowledge of formal proof to proof by mathematical induction, proof by contradiction and proof by
counterexample.

AHL 1.10

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Counting principles, including permutations and Not required: Permutations where some objects are
combinations. identical. Circular arrangements.
Extension of the binomial theorem to fractional and b n b n
(a + b)n = (a(1 + )) = an(1 + ) , n ( ℚ
n
negative indices, ie (a + b) , n ( ℚ. a a
Link to: power series expansions (AHL5.19)
Not required: Proof of binomial theorem.

Connections
Other contexts: Finding approximations to 2
Aim 8: How many different tickets are possible in a lottery? What does this tell us about the ethics of selling
lottery tickets to those who do not understand the implications of these large numbers?
International-mindedness: The properties of “Pascal’s triangle” have been known in a number of different
cultures long before Pascal (for example the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui).
TOK: What counts as understanding in mathematics? Is it more than just getting the right answer?

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AHL 1.11

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Partial fractions. Maximum of two distinct linear terms in the
denominator, with degree of numerator less than
the degree of the denominator.
2x + 1 1 1
Example: ≡ + .
x2 + x − 2 (x − 1) (x + 2)
Link to: use of partial fractions to rearrange the
integrand (AHL5.15).

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 33

Syllabus content

Connections

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AHL 1.12

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Complex numbers: the number i, where i2 = − 1.

Cartesian form z = a + bi; the terms real part,
imaginary part, conjugate, modulus and argument.
The complex plane. The complex plane is also known as the Argand
diagram.
Link to: vectors (AHL3.12).

Connections
Other contexts: Concepts in electrical engineering—impedance as a combination of resistance and
reactance, also apparent power as a combination of real and reactive powers. These combinations take the
form a + bi.
TOK: How does language shape knowledge? For example, do the words “imaginary” and “complex” make
the concepts more difficult than if they had different names?

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AHL 1.13

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Modulus–argument (polar) form: The ability to convert between Cartesian, modulus-
z = r(cosθ + isinθ) = rcisθ . argument (polar) and Euler form is expected.

Euler form:
z = reiθ
Sums, products and quotients in Cartesian, polar or
Euler forms and their geometric interpretation.

Connections
Other contexts: Concepts in electrical engineering–phase angle/shift, power factor and apparent power as
a complex quantity in polar form.
TOK: Why might it be said that ei) + 1 = 0 is beautiful? What is the place of beauty and elegance in
mathematics? What about the place of creativity?

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AHL 1.14

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Complex conjugate roots of quadratic and Complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
polynomial equations with real coefficients.
De Moivre’s theorem and its extension to rational Includes proof by induction for the case where
exponents. n ( ℤ+.

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Powers and roots of complex numbers. Link to: sum and product of roots of polynomial
equations (AHL 2.12), compound angle identities
(AHL 3.10).

Connections
TOK: Could we ever reach a point where everything important in a mathematical sense is known? Reflect
on the creation of complex numbers before their applications were known.
Enrichment: Can De Moivre’s theorem be extended to all n?

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AHL 1.15

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Proof by mathematical induction. Proof should be incorporated throughout the course
where appropriate.
Mathematical induction links specifically to a wide
variety of topics, for example complex numbers,
differentiation, sums of sequences and divisibility.
Proof by contradiction. Examples: Irrationality of 3; irrationality of the
cube root of 5; Euclid’s proof of an infinite number of
prime numbers; if a is a rational number and b is an
irrational number, then a + b is an irrational number.
Use of a counterexample to show that a statement is Example: Consider the set P of numbers of the form
not always true. n2 + 41n + 41, n ( ℕ, show that not all elements of
P are prime.
Example: Show that the following statement is not
always true: there are no positive integer solutions
to the equation x2 + y2 = 10.
It is not sufficient to state the counterexample alone.
Students must explain why their example is a
counterexample.

Connections
Other contexts: The Four-colour theorem
International-mindedness: How did the Pythagoreans find out that 2 is irrational?
TOK: What is the role of the mathematical community in determining the validity of a mathematical proof?
Do proofs provide us with completely certain knowledge? What is the difference between the inductive
method in science and proof by induction in mathematics?

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AHL 1.16

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Solutions of systems of linear equations (a These systems should be solved using both
maximum of three equations in three unknowns), algebraic and technological methods, for example
row reduction or matrices.

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 35

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

including cases where there is a unique solution, an Systems which have no solution(s) are inconsistent.
infinite number of solutions or no solution. Finding a general solution for a system with an
infinite number of solutions.
Link to: intersection of lines and planes (AHL 3.18).

Connections
TOK: Mathematics, Sense, Perception and Reason: If we can find solutions in higher dimensions can we
reason that these spaces exist beyond our sense perception?

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Topic 2: Functions
Concepts
Essential understandings
Models are depictions of real-life events using expressions, equations or graphs while a function is defined
as a relation or expression involving one or more variables. Creating different representations of functions
to model the relationships between variables, visually and symbolically as graphs, equations and tables
represents different ways to communicate mathematical ideas.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Representation, relationships, space, quantity, equivalence.
AHL: Systems, patterns.

Content-specific conceptual understandings:

• Different representations of functions, symbolically and visually as graphs, equations and tables
provide different ways to communicate mathematical relationships.
• The parameters in a function or equation correspond to geometrical features of a graph and can
represent physical quantities in spatial dimensions.
• Moving between different forms to represent functions allows for deeper understanding and provides
different approaches to problem solving.
• Our spatial frame of reference affects the visible part of a function and by changing this “window” can
show more or less of the function to best suit our needs.
• Equivalent representations of quadratic functions can reveal different characteristics of the same
relationship.
• Functions represent mappings that assign to each value of the independent variable (input) one and
only one dependent variable (output).

AHL
• Extending results from a specific case to a general form can allow us to apply them to a larger system.
• Patterns can be identified in behaviours which can give us insight into appropriate strategies to model
or solve them.
• The intersection of a system of equations may be represented graphically and algebraically and
represents the solution that satisfies the equations.

SL content
Recommended teaching hours: 21

36 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

The aim of the SL content in the functions topic is to introduce students to the important unifying theme of
a function in mathematics and to apply functional methods to a variety of mathematical situations.
Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology, such as graphing
packages and graphing calculators to develop and apply their knowledge of functions, rather than using
elaborate analytic techniques.
On examination papers:
• questions may be set requiring the graphing of functions that do not explicitly appear on the syllabus
• the domain will be the largest possible domain for which a function is defined unless otherwise stated;
this will usually be the real numbers
Sections SL2.1 to SL2.4 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

SL 2.1

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Different forms of the equation of a straight line. y = mx + c (gradient-intercept form).
Gradient; intercepts. ax + by + d = 0 (general form).
Lines with gradients m1 and m2 y − y1 = m(x − x1) (point-gradient form).
Parallel lines m1 = m2. Calculate gradients of inclines such as mountain
Perpendicular lines m1 ! m2 = − 1. roads, bridges, etc.

Connections
Other contexts: Gradients of mountain roads, gradients of access ramps.
Links to other subjects: Exchange rates and price and income elasticity, demand and supply curves
(economics); graphical analysis in experimental work (sciences group subjects).
TOK: Descartes showed that geometric problems could be solved algebraically and vice versa. What does
this tell us about mathematical representation and mathematical knowledge?

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SL 2.2

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Concept of a function, domain, range and graph. Example: f (x) = 2 − x, the domain is x ≤ 2,
Function notation, for example f (x), v(t), C(n). range is f (x) * 0.
The concept of a function as a mathematical model. A graph is helpful in visualizing the range.
Informal concept that an inverse function reverses Example: Solving f (x) = 10 is equivalent to finding
or undoes the effect of a function. f −1(10).
Inverse function as a reflection in the line y = x, and Students should be aware that inverse functions
the notation f −1(x). exist for one to one functions; the domain of f −1(x)
is equal to the range of f (x).

Connections
Other contexts: Temperature and currency conversions.
Links to other subjects: Currency conversions and cost functions (economics and business management);
projectile motion (physics).
Aim 8: What is the relationship between real-world problems and mathematical models?

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 37

Syllabus content

International-mindedness: The development of functions by Rene Descartes (France), Gottfried Wilhelm

Leibnitz (Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland); the notation for functions was developed by a
number of different mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries–how did the notation we use today
become internationally accepted?
TOK: Do you think mathematics or logic should be classified as a language?

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SL 2.3

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The graph of a function; its equation y = f (x). Students should be aware of the difference between
the command terms “draw” and “sketch”.
Creating a sketch from information given or a All axes and key features should be labelled.
context, including transferring a graph from screen This may include functions not specifically
to paper. mentioned in topic 2.
Using technology to graph functions including their
sums and differences.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Sketching and interpreting graphs (sciences group subjects, geography,
economics).
TOK: Does studying the graph of a function contain the same level of mathematical rigour as studying the
function algebraically? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different forms and symbolic
language in mathematics?

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SL 2.4

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Determine key features of graphs. Maximum and minimum values; intercepts;
symmetry; vertex; zeros of functions or roots of
equations; vertical and horizontal asymptotes using
graphing technology.
Finding the points of intersection of two curves or
lines using technology.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Identification and interpretation of key features of graphs (sciences group
subjects, geography, economics); production possibilities curve model, market equilibrium (economics).
International-mindedness: Bourbaki group analytical approach versus the Mandelbrot visual approach.
Use of technology: Graphing technology with sliders to determine the effects of altering parameters and
variables.

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38 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

SL 2.5

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Composite functions. ( f + g)(x) = f (g(x))
Identity function. Finding the inverse function ( f + f −1)(x) = ( f −1 + f )(x) = x
−1
f (x). The existence of an inverse for one-to-one functions.
Link to: concept of inverse function as a reflection in
the line y = x (SL 2.2).

Connections
TOK: Do you think mathematics or logic should be classified as a language?

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SL 2.6

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c: its A quadratic graph is also called a parabola.
graph, y -intercept (0, c). Axis of symmetry. Link to: transformations (SL 2.11).
The form f (x) = a(x − p)(x − q), Candidates are expected to be able to change from
x- intercepts (p, 0) and (q, 0). one form to another.

The form f (x) = a (x − h)2 + k, vertex (h, k).

Connections
Links to other subjects: Kinematics, projectile motion and simple harmonic motion (physics).
TOK: Are there fundamental differences between mathematics and other areas of knowledge? If so, are
these differences more than just methodological differences?

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SL 2.7

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Solution of quadratic equations and inequalities. Using factorization, completing the square (vertex
The quadratic formula. form), and the quadratic formula.
Solutions may be referred to as roots or zeros.

The discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac and the nature of the Example: For the equation 3kx2 + 2x + k = 0, find
roots, that is, two distinct real roots, two equal real the possible values of k, which will give two distinct
roots, no real roots. real roots, two equal real roots or no real roots.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Projectile motion and energy changes in simple harmonic motion (physics);
equilibrium equations (chemistry).
(a + b)2 − a2 − b2
International-mindedness: The Babylonian method of multiplication: ab = . Sulba Sutras
2
in ancient India and the Bakhshali Manuscript contained an algebraic formula for solving quadratic
equations.

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 39

Syllabus content

TOK: What are the key concepts that provide the building blocks for mathematical knowledge?
Use of technology: Dynamic graphing software with a slider.
Enrichment: Deriving the quadratic formula by completing the square.

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SL 2.8

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

1
The reciprocal function f (x) = , x , 0: its graph
x
and self-inverse nature.
ax + b Sketches should include all horizontal and vertical
Rational functions of the form f (x) = and
cx + d asymptotes and any intercepts with the axes.
their graphs.
Link to: transformations (SL2.11).
Equations of vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
d
Vertical asymptote: x = − ;
c
a
Horizontal asymptote: y = .
c

Connections
International-mindedness: The development of functions, Rene Descartes (France), Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland).
TOK: What are the implications of accepting that mathematical knowledge changes over time?

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SL 2.9

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Exponential functions and their graphs: Link to: financial applications of geometric
f (x) = ax, a > 0, f (x) = ex sequences and series (SL 1.4).

Logarithmic functions and their graphs: Relationships between these functions:

f (x) = loga x, x > 0, f (x) = lnx, x > 0. ax = exlna; loga ax = x, a, x > 0, a , 1

Exponential and logarithmic functions as inverses of
each other.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Radioactive decay, charging and discharging capacitors (physics); first order
reactions and activation energy (chemistry); growth curves (biology).
Aim 8: The phrase “exponential growth” is used popularly to describe a number of phenomena. Is ths a
misleading use of a mathematical term?
TOK: What role do “models” play in mathematics? Do they play a different role in mathematics compared to
their role in other areas of knowledge?

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40 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

SL 2.10

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Solving equations, both graphically and analytically. Example: e2x − 5ex + 4 = 0 .
Link to: function graphing skills (SL 2.3).
Use of technology to solve a variety of equations, ex = sinx
including those where there is no appropriate Examples:
x4 + 5x − 6 = 0
analytic approach.
Applications of graphing skills and solving Link to: exponential growth (SL 2.9)
equations that relate to real-life situations.

Connections
Other contexts: Radioactive decay and population growth and decay, compound interest, projectile
motion, braking distances.
Links to other subjects: Radioactive decay (physics); modelling (sciences group subjects); production
possibilities curve model (economics).
TOK: What assumptions do mathematicians make when they apply mathematics to real-life situations?

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SL 2.11

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Transformations of graphs. Students should be aware of the relevance of the
Translations: y = f (x) + b; y = f (x − a). order in which transformations are performed.

Reflections (in both axes): y = − f (x); y = f ( − x). Dynamic graphing packages could be used to
investigate these transformations.
Vertical stretch with scale factor p: y = p f (x).
1
Horizontal stretch with scale factor : y = f (qx).
q
Composite transformations. Example: Using y = x2 to sketch y = 3x2 + 2
Link to: composite functions (SL2.5).
Not required at SL: transformations of the form
f (ax + b).

Connections
Links to other subjects: Shift in supply and demand curves (Economics); induced emf and simple
harmonic motion (physics).

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AHL content
Recommended teaching hours: 11
The aim of the AHL functions topic is to extend and build upon the aims, concepts and skills from the SL
content. It introduces students to useful techniques for finding and using roots of polynomials, graphing
and interpreting rational functions, additional ways to classify functions, solving inequations and solving
equations involving modulus notation.

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 41

Syllabus content

HL students may be required to use technology to solve equations where there is no appropriate analytic
approach.

AHL 2.12

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Polynomial functions, their graphs and equations;
zeros, roots and factors.
The factor and remainder theorems.
Sum and product of the roots of polynomial n

equations. For the polynomial equation: ∑ ar xr = 0,

r=0

−an − 1
the sum is
an
( − 1)na0
the product is
an
Link to: complex roots of quadratic and polynomial
equations (AHL 1.14).

Connections
Links to other subjects: Modelling (sciences group subjects)
TOK: Is it an oversimplification to say that some areas of knowledge give us facts whereas other areas of
knowledge give us interpretations?
Enrichment: Viete’s theorem in full, “The equation that couldn’t be solved” quadratic formula reducing a
quadratic to a linear, Cardano and Bombelli.

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AHL 2.13

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Rational functions of the form The reciprocal function is a particular case.
ax + b ax2+ bx + c Graphs should include all asymptotes (horizontal,
f (x) = , and f (x) =
cx2 + dx + e dx + e vertical and oblique) and any intercepts with axes.
Dynamic graphing packages could be used to
investigate these functions.
Link to: rational functions (SL 2.8).

Connections
International mindedness: Bourbaki group analytical approach versus Mandelbrot visual approach.
TOK: Does studying the graph of a function contain the same level of mathematical rigour as studying the
function algebraically? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different forms and symbolic
language in mathematics?

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42 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

AHL 2.14

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Odd and even functions. Even: f ( − x) = f (x)
Odd: f ( − x) = − f (x)
Includes periodic functions.

Finding the inverse function, f −1(x),

including domain restriction.
Self-inverse functions.

Connections
International-mindedness: The notation for functions was developed by a number of different
mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries. How did the notation we use today become internationally
accepted?
TOK: If systems of notation and measurement are culturally and historically situated, does this mean
mathematics cannot be seen as independent of culture?

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AHL 2.15

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Solutions of g(x) * f (x), both graphically and Graphical or algebraic methods for simple
analytically. polynomials up to degree 3. Use of technology for
these and other functions.

Connections
TOK: Are there differences in terms of value that different cultures ascribe to mathematics, or to the relative
value that they ascribe to different areas of knowledge?

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AHL 2.16

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The graphs of the functions, y = | f (x)| Dynamic graphing packages could be used to
and investigate these transformations.
1
y = f (|x|), y = , y = f (ax + b), y = [ f (x)]2.
f (x)
Solution of modulus equations and inequalities. Example: |3xarccos(x)| > 1

Connections
International-mindedness: The Bourbaki group analytic approach versus Mandlebrot visual approach.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 43

Syllabus content

Topic 3: Geometry and trigonometry

Concepts
Essential understandings:
Geometry and trigonometry allows us to quantify the physical world, enhancing our spatial awareness in
two and three dimensions. This topic provides us with the tools for analysis, measurement and
transformation of quantities, movements and relationships.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Generalization, space, relationships, equivalence, representation,
AHL: Quantity, Modelling.

Content-specific conceptual understandings:

• The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in space.
• Volume and surface area of shapes are determined by formulae, or general mathematical relationships
or rules expressed using symbols or variables.
• The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the angles in a triangle can be used
to solve many problems involving position, distance, angles and area.
• Equivalent measurement systems, such as degrees and radians, can be used for angles to facilitate
ease of calculation.
• Different representations of the values of trigonometric relationships, such as exact or approximate,
may not be equivalent to one another.
• The trigonometric functions of angles may be defined on the unit circle, which can visually and
algebraically represent the periodic or symmetric nature of their values.

AHL
• Position and movement can be modelled in three-dimensional space using vectors.
• The relationships between algebraic, geometric and vector methods can help us to solve problems
and quantify those positions and movements.

SL content
Recommended teaching hours: 25
The aim of the SL content of the geometry and trigonometry topic is to introduce students to geometry in
three dimensions and to non right-angled trigonometry. Students will explore the circular functions and
use properties and identities to solve problems in abstract and real-life contexts.
Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology such as graphing
packages, graphing calculators and dynamic geometry software to develop and apply their knowledge of
geometry and trigonometry.
On examination papers, radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.
Sections SL3.1 to SL3.3 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

SL 3.1

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The distance between two points in three- In SL examinations, only right-angled trigonometry
dimensional space, and their midpoint. questions will be set in reference to three-
dimensional shapes.

44 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Volume and surface area of three-dimensional solids In problems related to these topics, students should
including right-pyramid, right cone, sphere, be able to identify relevant right-angled triangles in
hemisphere and combinations of these solids. three-dimensional objects and use them to find
The size of an angle between two intersecting lines unknown lengths and angles.
or between a line and a plane.

Connections
Other contexts: Architecture and design.
Links to other subjects: Design technology; volumes of stars and inverse square law (physics).
TOK: What is an axiomatic system? Are axioms self evident to everybody?

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SL 3.2

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Use of sine, cosine and tangent ratios to find the In all areas of this topic, students should be
sides and angles of right-angled triangles. encouraged to sketch well-labelled diagrams to
support their solutions.
Link to: inverse functions (SL2.2) when finding
angles.
a b c This section does not include the ambiguous case of
The sine rule: = = .
sinA sinB sinC the sine rule.
The cosine rule: c2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcosC;
a2 + b2 − c2
cosC = .
2ab
1
Area of a triangle as absinC.
2

Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation, map-making.
Links to other subjects: Vectors (physics).
International-mindedness: Diagrams of Pythagoras’ theorem occur in early Chinese and Indian
manuscripts. The earliest references to trigonometry are in Indian mathematics; the use of triangulation to
find the curvature of the Earth in order to settle a dispute between England and France over Newton’s
gravity.
TOK: Is it ethical that Pythagoras gave his name to a theorem that may not have been his own creation?
What criteria might we use to make such a judgment?

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SL 3.3

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Applications of right and non-right angled Contexts may include use of bearings.
trigonometry, including Pythagoras’s theorem.
Angles of elevation and depression.

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 45

Syllabus content

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Construction of labelled diagrams from written
statements.

Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation, map-making, navigation and radio transmissions. Use of parallax for
navigation.
Links to other subjects: Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics); field studies (sciences group
subjects)
Aim 8: Who really invented Pythagoras’s theorem?
Aim 9: In how many ways can you prove Pythagoras’s theorem?
International-mindedness: The use of triangulation to find the curvature of the Earth in order to settle a
dispute between England and France over Newton’s gravity.
TOK: If the angles of a triangle can add up to less than 180°, 180° or more than 180°, what does this tell us
about the nature of mathematical knowledge?

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SL 3.4

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The circle: radian measure of angles; length of an Radian measure may be expressed as exact
arc; area of a sector. multiples of ), or decimals.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Diffraction patterns and circular motion (physics).
International-mindedness: Seki Takakazu calculating ) to ten decimal places; Hipparchus, Menelaus and
Ptolemy; Why are there 360 degrees in a complete turn? Links to Babylonian mathematics.
TOK: Which is a better measure of angle: radian or degree? What criteria can/do/should mathematicians
use to make such decisions?

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SL 3.5

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Definition of cosθ, sinθ in terms of the unit circle. Includes the relationship between angles in different
quadrants.
cosx = cos( − x)
Examples: tan(3) − x) = − tanx
sin() + x) = − sinx
sinθ The equation of a straight line through the origin is
Definition of tanθ as .
cosθ y = xtanθ, where θ is the angle formed between the
line and positive x-axis.
) ) ) ) ) 3 3) 1 3
Exact values of trigonometric ratios of 0, , , , sin = , cos = − , tan210° =
6 4 3 2 3 2 4 2 3
and their multiples.
Extension of the sine rule to the ambiguous case.

46 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

Connections
International-mindedness: The first work to refer explicitly to the sine as a function of an angle is the
Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (ca 510).
TOK: Trigonometry was developed by successive civilizations and cultures. To what extent is mathematical
knowledge embedded in particular traditions or bound to particular cultures? How have key events in the
history of mathematics shaped its current form and methods?
Enrichment: The proof of Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions.

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SL 3.6

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The Pythagorean identity cos2θ + sin2θ = 1. Simple geometrical diagrams and dynamic graphing
packages may be used to illustrate the double angle
Double angle identities for sine and cosine.
identities (and other trigonometric identities).
The relationship between trigonometric ratios. Examples:
Given sinθ, find possible values of tanθ, (without
finding θ).
3
Given cosx = and x is acute, find sin 2x, (without
4
finding x).

Connections

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SL 3.7

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The circular functions sinx, cosx, and tanx; Trigonometric functions may have domains given in
amplitude, their periodic nature, and their graphs degrees or radians.
Composite functions of the form )
Examples: f (x) = tan(x − ),
4
f (x) = asin(b(x + c)) + d.
f (x) = 2cos(3(x − 4)) + 1.
Transformations. Example: y = sinx used to obtain y = 3sin2x by a
stretch of scale factor 3 in the y direction and a
1
stretch of scale factor in the x direction.
2
Link to: transformations of graphs (SL2.11).
Real-life contexts. Examples: height of tide, motion of a Ferris wheel.
Students should be aware that not all regression
technology produces trigonometric functions in the
form f (x) = asin (b (x + c)) + d.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion (physics).
TOK: Music can be expressed using mathematics. What does this tell us about the relationship between
music and mathematics?

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 47

Syllabus content

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SL 3.8

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Solving trigonometric equations in a finite interval, 2sinx = 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2)
both graphically and analytically. Examples: 2sin2x = 3cosx, 0° ≤ x ≤ 180°
2tan(3(x − 4)) = 1, − ) ≤ x ≤ 3)
Equations leading to quadratic equations in Examples: 2sin2 x + 5cosx + 1 = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4),
sinx, cosx or tanx.
2sinx = cos2x, −)≤ x≤)
Not required: The general solution of trigonometric
equations.

Connections

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AHL content
Recommended teaching hours: 26
The aim of the AHL content in the geometry and trigonometry topic is to extend and build upon the aims,
concepts and skills from the SL content. It further explores the circular functions, introduces some
important trigonometric identities, and introduces vectors in two and three dimensions. This will facilitate
problem-solving involving points, lines and planes.
On examination papers radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.

AHL 3.9

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Definition of the reciprocal trigonometric ratios secθ,
cosecθ and cotθ.
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ
Pythagorean identities:
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
The inverse functions f (x) = arcsinx,
f (x) = arccosx, f (x) = arctanx; their domains and
ranges; their graphs.

Connections
International-mindedness: The origin of degrees in the mathematics of Mesopotamia and why we use
minutes and seconds for time; the origin of the word sine.
TOK: What is the relationship between concepts and facts? To what extent do the concepts that we use
shape the conclusions that we reach?

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48 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

AHL 3.10

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Compound angle identities. Derivation of double angle identities from
Double angle identity for tan. compound angle identities.
Link to: De Moivre’s theorem (AHL1.14).

Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation used by GPSs (global positioning systems); concepts in electrical
engineering including generation of sinusoidal voltage.

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AHL 3.11

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Relationships between trigonometric functions and sin() − θ) = sinθ
the symmetry properties of their graphs.
cos() − θ) = − cosθ

tan() − θ) = − tanθ

Link to: the unit circle (SL3.5), odd and even

functions (AHL2.14), compound angles (AHL3.10).

Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion graphs (physics)
TOK: Mathematics and knowledge claims: how can there be an infinite number of discrete solutions to an
equation?

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AHL 3.12

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Concept of a vector; position vectors; displacement
vectors.
Representation of vectors using directed line
segments.
Base vectors i, j, k.
Components of a vector:
v1
v = v2 = v1i + v2 j + v3k.
v3

Algebraic and geometric approaches to the Distance between points A and B is the magnitude
following: →
of AB
• the sum and difference of two vectors
• the zero vector 0, the vector −v
• multiplication by a scalar, kv, parallel vectors

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 49

Syllabus content

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

• v
magnitude of a vector, |v|; unit vectors,
|v|
• → →
position vectors OA = a, OB = b
• →
displacement vector AB = b − a
Proofs of geometrical properties using vectors.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics).
Aim 8: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost sailor or
destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb.
TOK: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost sailor or
destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb. To what extent does possession of knowledge carry with it an
ethical obligation?

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AHL 3.13

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The definition of the scalar product of two vectors. Applications of the properties of the scalar product
The angle between two vectors. v · w = w · v;
Perpendicular vectors; parallel vectors. u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w;
(kv) · w = k(v · w);
v · v = v 2.
v · w = v w cosθ, where θ is the angle between v and
w.
For non-zero vectors v · w = 0 is equivalent to the
vectors being perpendicular; for parallel vectors
|v . w| = |v||w|.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Forces and dynamics (physics).
TOK: The nature of mathematics: why this definition of scalar product?
Enrichment: Proof of the cosine rule using the dot product.

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AHL 3.14

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Vector equation of a line in two and three Relevance of a (position) and b (direction).
dimensions: Knowledge of the following forms for equations of
r = a + λb. lines:
Parametric form:
x = x0 + λl, y = y0 + λm, z = z0 + λn.

50 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

 Syllabus content

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Cartesian form:
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = .
l m n
The angle between two lines. Using the scalar product of the two direction
vectors.
Simple applications to kinematics. Interpretation of λ as time and b as velocity, with |b|
representing speed.

Connections
Other contexts: Modelling linear motion in three dimensions; navigational devices, for example GPS.
TOK: Why might it be argued that one form of representation is superior to another? What criteria might a
mathematician use in making such an argument?

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AHL 3.15

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Coincident, parallel, intersecting and skew lines, Skew lines are non-parallel lines that do not
distinguishing between these cases. intersect in three-dimensional space.
Points of intersection.

Connections
TOK: How can there be an infinite number of discrete solutions to an equation? What does this suggest
about the nature of mathematical knowledge and how it compares to knowledge in other disciplines?

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AHL 3.16

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The definition of the vector product of two vectors. The vector product is also known as the “cross
product”.
v ! w = v w sinθn, where θ
is the angle between v and w, and n is the unit
normal vector whose direction is given by the right-
hand screw rule.
Properties of the vector product. v ! w = − w ! v;
u ! (v + w) = u ! v + u ! w;
(kv) ! w = k(v ! w);
v ! v = 0.
For non-zero vectors v ! w = 0 is equivalent to the
vectors being parallel.
Geometric interpretation of | v ! w | Use of | v ! w | to find the area of a parallelogram
(and hence a triangle).

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 51

Syllabus content

Connections
Links to other subjects: Magnetic forces and fields (physics).
TOK: To what extent is certainty attainable in mathematics? Is certainty attainable, or desirable, in other
areas of knowledge?

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AHL 3.17

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Vector equations of a plane:
r = a + λb + μc, where b and c are non-parallel
vectors within the plane.
r · n = a · n, where n is a normal to the plane and a is
the position vector of a point on the plane.
Cartesian equation of a plane ax + by + cz = d.

Connections

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AHL 3.18

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Intersections of: a line with a plane; two planes; Finding intersections by solving equations;
three planes. geometrical interpretation of solutions.
Angle between: a line and a plane; two planes. Link to: solutions of systems of linear equations
(AHL 1.16).

Connections
TOK: Mathematics and the knower: are symbolic representations of three-dimensional objects easier to
deal with than visual representations? What does this tell us about our knowledge of mathematics in other
dimensions?

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Topic 4: Statistics and probability

Concepts
Essential understandings:
Statistics is concerned with the collection, analysis and interpretation of data and the theory of probability
can be used to estimate parameters, discover empirical laws, test hypotheses and predict the occurrence of
events. Statistical representations and measures allow us to represent data in many different forms to aid
interpretation.
Probability enables us to quantify the likelihood of events occurring and so evaluate risk. Both statistics and
probability provide important representations which enable us to make predictions, valid comparisons and
informed decisions. These fields have power and limitations and should be applied with care and critically

52 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide