Introduction

Multilingualism has increasingly become a global phenomenon, shaping personal,

educational, and professional spaces. Parents today aspire for their children to become not
only bilingual but multilingual, recognizing its role as a vital asset in contemporary society.
Similarly, both government and private institutions embrace multilingual communication to
address the needs of their diverse clients. The educational sector is integral to this linguistic
trend since schools are often regarded as formal spaces where languages are taught,
learned, and practiced systematically. Indeed, multilingualism is now seen as a defining
characteristic of modern schooling worldwide.

International organizations and empirical reviews highlight multilingualism not as a hindrance

but as a valuable resource that enhances equity, inclusion, and academic achievement. For
instance, Conteh and Meier (2014), as cited in UNESCO (2023), affirm that multilingualism is
no longer treated as a deficit but as an opportunity for learners. The notion of “English-only
policies” is increasingly outdated, replaced by an awareness that multilingual proficiency
equips individuals with broader communicative and cognitive advantages. In this respect,
multilingualism is recognized across sectors as a catalyst for productivity and meaningful
interaction.

Within classrooms, multilingualism reconfigures the ways in which teaching and learning are
studied and described. By drawing on diverse linguistic resources, it enables novel
pedagogical approaches. A wide range of studies underscores the benefits of multilingualism
in varied contexts (Stein-Smith, 2016; Projoga et al., 2023; García, 2014; Shin & Sterzuk,
2019; Gogolin, 2021; Ghaderi, 2024; Brevik & Rindal, 2020; Rayo, 2024; Hu et al., 2022). One
significant outcome of multilingualism is code-switching, a linguistic practice where speakers
alternate between languages. When individuals have access to more than one language, they
naturally tend to switch between them depending on communicative needs. This
phenomenon is thus considered an important manifestation of multilingual competence.

Rahmadani (2023) defines code-switching as the seamless alternation between two or more
languages or varieties within a single utterance or conversation. Such switching is common in
multilingual contexts, including educational settings. Research from diverse contexts
demonstrates that code-switching is often used strategically in classrooms (Abeywickrama,
2023; Sudarmawan, 2022; Kumar & Hassan, 2021; Gerungan et al., 2021; Setyowati, 2023;
Hamid, 2016; Wunseh & Charamba, 2023; Habintwali et al., 2024). These studies indicate
that code-switching facilitates understanding, bridges communication barriers, and fosters
effective teaching-learning interactions.

The motivations behind code-switching are varied. Literature identifies reasons such as
learners’ low English proficiency, feelings of fear or embarrassment, and lack of confidence.
Conversely, teachers employ code-switching as a pedagogical strategy to address learners’
difficulties, clarify concepts, enhance classroom management, and make students feel at
ease (Benghalem & Kamińska, 2024; Alsalem & Elsawy, 2025; Almagableh & Yunus, 2023). In
addition, pedagogical functions such as clarification, scaffolding, and emphasis are well-
documented (Jabar, 2025; Kumari, 2024; Liu et al., 2025; Chitiga, 2022; Zondi & Mncube,
2024; Blair et al., 2024; Shirazizadeh et al., 2024; Dinoy et al., 2021; Msemeki, 2021;
Abubakar, 2022; Zemfira, 2025). Through these functions, code-switching supports
comprehension, strengthens interaction, motivates learners, and fills linguistic gaps in the
classroom. Accordingly, code-switching emerges as a pedagogical resource that bridges
language barriers and encourages learner participation.

Beyond pedagogy, code-switching also fulfills important social functions. It can signal cultural
identity, express social perspectives, or manage interpersonal relationships. For instance,
Liang (2022) explored the socio-pragmatic use of emojis through the lens of social semiotics
and translanguaging. Findings suggested that emojis contribute to multimodal meaning-
making and playful communication in online social interactions, highlighting the broader role
of language mixing in socialization practices.

In the Philippine context, bilingualism and multilingualism are prevalent due to the nation’s
linguistic diversity. Unsurprisingly, code-switching is common in classrooms. One contributing
factor is the implementation of Mother Tongue–Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE), a
policy that enhances students’ comprehension and literacy by using their native languages as
a medium of instruction. Despite its benefits, MTB-MLE presents challenges concerning
teacher preparedness, resource allocation, and consistent implementation (Dagalea et al.,
2022; Igarashi, 2024; Lawangen, 2025; Lumanlan, 2024).

At the tertiary level, English continues to dominate as the primary medium of instruction,
reinforced by Executive Order No. 210 (2003), which mandates its use in higher education
institutions to strengthen English proficiency. Nevertheless, the bilingual education policy
introduced by Department Order No. 25, s. 1974, emphasizes the balanced use of both
Filipino and English in schools. These policies highlight the tension between promoting
English proficiency and valuing Filipino as a medium of instruction. Thus, striking a balance
between the two languages in higher education classrooms remains a pressing issue.

Although existing literature points to the pedagogical effectiveness of code-switching,

research gaps persist. Notably, few studies explore code-switching among pre-service
teachers—future educators who are central to shaping classroom language practices. Most
existing research examines in-service teachers, leaving a gap regarding the strategies pre-
service teachers adopt, their reasons for code-switching, and the implications of their
practices. Moreover, much of the literature originates from contexts outside the Philippines,
raising questions about the local applicability of findings.

Code-Switching in the Educational Setting

Code-switching, understood as the alternating use of two or more languages within a

discourse, serves multiple communicative and pedagogical purposes (Nguyen et al., 2022;
Almagableh & Yunus, 2022). Researchers classify code-switching into categories such as
intra-sentential, extra-sentential, and tag-switching, each with specific roles in discourse
(Sinclair & Fernández, 2022; Fithriani, 2021).

Studies emphasize that code-switching aids learners by clarifying complex concepts, creating
a sense of community, and managing classroom dynamics (Nurhamidah et al., 2018).
Teachers and students generally perceive it positively, recognizing its role in supporting
English language learning. Nonetheless, negative perceptions persist, often rooted in the
“monolingual fallacy” that equates code-switching with incompetence (Elias et al., 2022;
Xiaoyun, 2023). Critics also argue that code-switching reduces target language exposure and
fosters reliance on the first language, which could hinder acquisition (Munder, 2024).

The role of code-switching varies across educational levels. In primary education, learners use
it naturally to address gaps in comprehension, while teachers employ it to develop early
literacy (Mehdi, 2024; Sinclair & Fernández, 2022; Sharma, 2023). In secondary education,
code-switching serves more complex functions such as maintaining discipline, clarifying
abstract ideas, and managing academic pressures (Nguyen et al., 2018). At the tertiary level,
it becomes a tool for navigating specialized academic discourse, helping students understand
theoretical frameworks and advanced concepts (Zhou & Mann, 2021). However, the extent to
which pre-service teacher preparation includes code-switching strategies remains
underexplored, reflecting a significant research gap (Kusk, 2022; Xiaoyun, 2023).

Code-Switching in Teacher Education and Pre-Service Teachers

A growing body of literature confirms that code-switching fulfills both pedagogical and socio-
cultural functions in classrooms. It fosters learners’ confidence, promotes engagement,
facilitates comprehension, and improves participation. Teachers also use it to clarify content,
manage classroom interactions, and build rapport (Gulzar, 2014; Cahyani et al., 2016;
Nguyen et al., 2022; Almagableh & Yunus, 2022).

Pre-service teachers, in particular, rely on code-switching as a spontaneous strategy to assist

learners with diverse linguistic backgrounds (Almagableh & Yunus, 2022; Al-musthofa &
D’Angelo, 2024; Prasetya, 2021). By incorporating students’ first languages, they scaffold
learning and support the acquisition of English (Thongwichit & Ulla, 2024). However, these
teachers often face challenges in balancing the use of L1 with the goal of promoting English
proficiency. The absence of systematic training in translanguaging pedagogies contributes to
uncertainty regarding the appropriate use of multilingual practices (Riffo-Salgado, 2024;
Paetsch et al., 2023).
This study is therefore significant as it addresses the underexplored area of pre-service
teachers’ use of code-switching in the classroom. By examining their linguistic practices, it
contributes to understanding the convergence of language ideologies, policies, and actual
teaching experiences. Insights from this study have implications for teacher education
programs, which must equip future educators with the skills to integrate multilingual
practices effectively. It also informs language policy by revealing alignments or discrepancies
between formal policies and classroom realities, and it emphasizes the importance of
inclusive language practices for student engagement and academic [Link] addressing
these questions, the study contributes to the field of language education by offering deeper
insights into how future teachers navigate multilingual realities in practice. It situates pre-
service teachers’ strategies within the broader global discourse on multilingualism and
pedagogy, thereby informing teacher education, language policy, and student learning.

Globally, extensive research has mapped out the types and functions of code-switching, yet
the strategies pre-service teachers employ remain insufficiently documented. This study
therefore seeks to fill this gap by focusing on pre-service English teachers. Specifically, it
aims to:

1. Identify the types of code-switching commonly employed by pre-service English

teachers during demo teaching.
2. Examine the reasons pre-service English teachers engage in code-switching in
classroom contexts.