Module

Religion and Belief Systems

14

At the end of this module, I can:

1. Conduct participant observation (e.g., attend, describe, and
reflect on a religious practice and ritual of a different group;
observe election practices).
2. Differentiate between the types of religious practitioners.
3. Discuss the functions of religion in a society and for an
individual. (Enrichment)
4. Identify the various forms of religious activities.

Who really determines your religion? When does an individual obtain a

certain religion? Do you really have a choice when it comes to choosing
your religion? These are a few questions that you may ask whenever the
word religion comes into the picture. Anthropologists define religion as “a
set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices, pertaining to supernatural beings and
forces. Such beliefs may vary within a culture as well as among societies,
and they may change over time” (Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010).
Nevertheless, there remain several issues in defining religion that are rooted
in a dichotomous perspective on it held by most societies.
First, there is the issue on how to delineate between the religious and
nonreligious phenomena. The question to be answered here is this: Which
do you believe as a religious act, and which do you consider as
nonreligious? The Kikuyu of Kenya believe that vomiting is a religious
practice as it eliminates all the evil in a person's body. In most societies,
vomiting is not considered religious, as it is understood as a typical
biological event.
 Another issue in defining religion is rooted in the belief in the existence
of a divide between the spiritual and natural world. Some societies such as
that of the Nyoro in Uganda believe that the two worlds are not separate and
that they coexist in one space. Christians, on the other hand, believe that
there is a spiritual world (i.e., heaven/hell) that is separate from the natural
world (i.e., Earth). These issues present that religions are different in terms
of perspectives and practices. However, religion can be found in all human
societies. This makes religion a cultural universal.

Fig. 14.1. A Kikuyu shaman who facilitates the circumcision process

Source: [Link]
v=1&g=fs1%7C0%7CLP1%7C41%7C933&s=1

Early societies such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Sumerians used

religious symbols and practiced ritualistic ceremonies, which made religion
one of the central parts of the development of human societies (Crossman,
2014). The earliest record on the existence of religion dates to 60 000 years
ago as evidenced by cave wall carvings in France (Ferraro and Andreatta,
2010).

Fig. 14.2. The Sorcerer of Les Gabillou in Dordogne, France

Source: [Link]

One of the best examples of the wide practice of religion during ancient
periods is the religion and mythology of ancient Greece. Because religion
has been associated with rituals, artifacts, beliefs, and ceremonies, the
ancient Greeks were considered to have had a religion or varieties of
religions due to their countless religious beliefs.
Religion affects you and your way of thinking in the existing world. It
serves as a pattern for the actions you take in a day-to-day existence.
Religion is seen not only as a social belief but also as a social institution that
continues to develop over time.
Thus, several social scientists, specifically sociologists, have been
studying religion. Sociologists study religion while considering diverse
societal factors such as gender, age, race, and education, which also tap
other social institutions and the concept of social change.

Functions of Religion
 There are several functions of religion that can be best explained
through various theoretical orientations. Sociological perspectives aim to
look into the roles, issues, problems, and purposes that religion may serve to
people and society (Emerson, Monahan, and Mirola, 2011 in Barkan, 2012).
In this part, you are able to gain a deeper sense of understanding with the
different functions of religion by focusing on its three major functions
guided by three major sociological theories: functionalism, conflict theory,
and symbolic interactionism.

Table 14.1. Major Sociological Theories and Their Major Assumptions

Concerning Religion
Theoretical Perspective Major Assumptions

Functionalism Religion serves several functions for society. These include (a)
giving meaning and purpose to life, (b) reinforcing social unity and
stability, (c) serving as an agent of social control of behavior, (d)
promoting physical and psychological well-being, and (e)
motivating people to work for positive social change.

Conflict theory Religion reinforces and promotes social inequality and social
conflict. It helps convince the poor to accept their lot in life, and it
leads to hostility and violence motivated by religious differences.

Symbolic interactionism This perspective focuses on the ways in which individuals interpret
their religious experiences. It emphasizes that beliefs and practices
are not sacred unless people regard them as such. Once they are
regarded as sacred, they take on special significance and give
meaning to people's lives.

Source: Barkan, Steven. “Sociological Perspectives on Religion.” In Sociology:

Understanding and Chaning the Social World, comprehensive edition.

Functions of Religion

Functionalism
 Emile Durkheim argues that religion serves many functions for
societies. First, religions give meaning and purpose to life. The age-old
questions of humans on their existence and the reasons for circumstances
that befall them were first addressed by religion. Second, religion reinforces
social unity and stability. Religions establish own practices, beliefs, and
ways of worship that enable people to be united in one place. This does not
only bring people physically together but also facilitates social interactions
among them sharing same norms and values in a certain religious group.
Third, religions serve as an agent of social behavior control through the
teachings they provide. These teachings motivate people to do good and be
functional members of society. Fourth, religions promote physical and
psychological well-being by being the source of other's comfort and
happiness in times of obstacles and distress. Studies show that religiosity
promotes better health and long life (Moberg, 2008). Last, religions serve as
a motivation toward social change. Religious individuals such as Martin
Luther and Mahatma Gandhi instigated social changes in their societies
(Morris, 1984).

Conflict Theory
Conflict theory understands religion in relation to inequality and conflict
as inspired by the works of Karl Marx who stated that “religion is the opiate
of the masses” (Marx, 1964). In this statement, Marx implied the use of
religion by the governing elite to pacify the discontent of the masses. He
further argued that instead of seeing poverty as the direct result of unequal
access to resources, the masses perceive it as a manifestation of the will of
the divine, which promote the belief that enduring suffering would be
rewarding in the end. These views lead Marx to see religion as cause of
continuous social inequality among different societies. Gender inequality
concern also arise from religion by representing stereotypical views about
women being subordinate to men (Klassen, 2009).

Symbolic Interactionism
Looking into the micro perspective of religion, Max Weber's symbolic
interactionism approach argues that religion is integrated with symbols and
interpretations. The world is believed to be socially constructed. For the
interactionist, the sacredness of activities and symbols depend on the
perception of the believer. Hence, the practice of wearing a veil among
Muslims can be either a religious or a nonreligious ritual as the wearer could
associate varying meanings to it depending on her belief.

Fig. 14.3. Comparative photographs of veiled women

This approach also attempts to determine roles and interpretations of

religion in everyday life. The symbolic interactionism approach understands
religious practices, ceremonies, and festivals of every religious group or
organization as either a transformative experience or just another form of
social gathering.

Animism
Religion involves several social patterns that are incorporated with
different social structures, norms, and values. According to Kurtz (2007), all
religions contain cosmogenies—stories and beliefs on how the world was
created and how it actually started. In ancient times, smaller societies have
this belief of spirits, which are apparitions believed to be dwelling on Earth
with the human race. This is one of the earliest forms of religious pattern,
which is known as animism.
Animism may have started in the precolonial and modern societies.
However, there are several resurrections of animistic traditions that were
observed in contemporary periods. In 1990, the resurgence of new age
movements that believed in the existence of supernatural beings and entities
was observed in Western cultures. This belief can be traced back to the
animistic beliefs of indigenous settlers. These beliefs based on the spiritual
concept of the universe and that everything that can be found inside it is said
to have soul and spirit, including plants, trees, animals, and rocks. Natural
phenomena and environmental destructions are also understood as
repercussions of the interaction between humans and spirits.
The concept of animism first appeared in the writing of Sir Edward
Burnett Tylor entitled Primitive Culture (1871). Tylor supposed animism
means “spirit” and referred to a given form of religion wherein humans are
aware of every spirit that can be found in the environment. Central to Tylor's
argument are the concepts of “the doctrine of human and other souls” or
“the doctrine of spiritual beings,” which are based on the foundational
doctrine of “psychic unity” or the predisposition of humans to conceive
thoughts and concepts that are similar.
For the past 50 years, Tylor's argument affirms that all humans for all
time have the capability to understand phenomena through the observed,
known, and imagined universe. This is through the use of people's own
cultural symbols and languages. Tylor also considers spiritualism as a
modern cult that is deficient of human motivations of animism. Ideally,
animism in all aspects of the cultural system make it possible for the human
race to experience phenomena such as dreams, visions, insights, and
experiences.
In animism, spirits can be in either good or bad form. Moreover, these
spirits make interactions and influences on humans in various ways and
forms. For instance, bad spirits may cause negative energies, possessions,
demonic disturbances, and cases of insanity. Benevolent spirits, on the
contrary, may have attributes that aid humans in acquiring their needs and
addressing their issues. Native Americans try to gain favors through
festivals, ceremonies, and prayers. One of the earliest forms of American
animist ceremonies is the Lakota Sioux War Dance, which was performed
by the tribe Lakota Sioux.

Fig. 14.4. An artist's rendition of a Lakota Sioux War Dance

Source: [Link]

Polytheism
Another religious pattern that was established during ancient periods is
polytheism. Polytheism is rooted in these two words: poly, which means
“many,” and theism, which means “god.” Hence, polytheism is
characterized by the worship of many deities, which illustrate ways of life
including beliefs, practices, and traditions (Kowalcyzk, 2012). Polytheistic
deities consist of variants of the sky god, death deity, mother goddess, love
goddess, creator deity, trickster deity, life-death-rebirth deity, and culture
hero (Mastin, 2008).
David Hume in The Natural History of Religion (1755) argued that
polytheism was the earliest form of religion among several societies. The
ideas of religion are said to be rooted in the “events of life including hopes
and fears which actuate the human mind” (Launay, 2005). Consequently,
these hopes and fears concerning, for instance, a birth, a sickness, or a bad
harvest and several other aspects are different requiring for a variety of
deities who would address them. Some of the most popular polytheistic
societies include the Greeks, Romans, Indians, and Aztecs (Kendall, 2012).
Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world and one of the classic
examples of polytheism.

Fig. 14.5. Image of Ganesh, one of the Hindu gods

Source: [Link]
6724_thumb.jpg

Monotheism
If you are Christian or Muslim, you can consider yourself a monotheist.
Monotheism strongly believes in one god, which is accountable for all the
things happening in the world including the world's creation and existence.
It is believed that polytheism paved the way for the development of the
belief in the supreme power of one being. Scholars argue that as human
societies affiliate with a few of the gods in a pantheon of gods, they have
come to practice exclusive worship of several deities. This practice later
promoted the ascension of a singular chosen deity to supremacy. Hume
(1755) believed that the differences between polytheism and monotheism
led to the changes of the human mind, wherein rationality is more associated
with monotheism while tolerance is to polytheism.
The development of religious patterns across societies reflect the
sociopolitical dynamics experienced by its followers. It can be said that
religion acts as a mirror of one's society. Animistic societies tend to have
egalitarian practices that allow for equality of access to power and
resources. This is parallel to the status and relationship of spirits that are
worshipped in animism—all are of equal stature. Polytheistic societies often
have a set of leaders who are governed by hierarchy. Similarly, the gods in a
polytheistic religion are believed to follow a hierarchy such that there is one
chief god and many lesser counterparts. Monotheistic societies tend to have
one supreme political leader, such as a president or a king, which is
consistent with the belief that there is also one supreme deity.

What Have I Learned So Far?

1. How does religion intersect with political systems?

2. What conditions allow for the practice of polytheism?

3. Why is animism associated with the environment?

Institutionalized Religion
When beliefs and rituals are codified and when worship of deities is
structured, religion ceases to be just a belief in the divine, as it takes on the
characteristic of an institution. Institutionalized religion is also referred to
by sociologists as organized religion. Some of the notable characteristics of
institutionalized religion are the following:
1. Wide-scale religious clout – The number of individuals affiliated with
this religious institution is immense that it crosses political and
international borders and cuts across social status.
2. Hierarchical leadership and membership – Followers of this type of faith
system are relegated to sociopolitical posts within the system, which
provides ranking and status. This implies that access to the divine may
not be given to every member but is a privilege of a select few. The
decisions for the welfare of the religious group are also made by those
who hold power while the members are expected to follow them.
3. Codified rituals – The processes of interacting with the divine and with
fellow members are guided by written rules and regulations that have the
power of the law, such that a member's inability to comply results in the
imposition of sanctions.

The rise of institutionalized religions can be traced back to the growth of

neolithic societies. As these societies grew more complex, the systems of
worshipping the divine became more structured. The declaration of a
country's official religion is a premier example of how a religion is
institutionalized.

Separation of Church and State

In ancient societies, the church and the state are synonymous as the
leaders of the church are also the political elite. Political scientists refer to
this as theocracy or the rule of the divine. In such societies, political leaders
also assume religious leadership by virtue of the common belief that they
are directly related to the divine. The prewar Japanese society believed that
their emperor was the direct descendant of a god. Ancient Egyptians and
Sumerians regarded their pharaohs and kings as god-kings, as they believed
that they were earthly incarnations of the divine.
As states developed into more complex political units, the
interrelationship between the state and the church has been redefined to the
extent that the church is regarded as a separate entity from the state. Most
countries have mandated the separation of church and state affairs through
the inclusion of prohibiting provision in their constitutions. The 1987
Philippine Constitution is an example of this. Article III Section 6 states that
“The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.” More specifically,
it states in Article III Section 5:
No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for
the exercise of civil or political rights.

However, despite such provisions, the religious culture of the Filipinos

have oftentimes empowered the religious sectors to influence the political
affairs of the country.

Big Idea
Religion is a cultural universal that is perpetuated by an
individual's desire to make sense of his or her world.

Beyond Walls 14.1 Read and Answer

Go to [Link]
winning-church-v-state-philippines-war-drugs to read an article that
discusses the state of conflict between the Philippine state and the
Roman Catholic Church in the country. This conflict is rooted in the
former's “war on drugs” campaign that is accused of promoting
 extrajudicial killings in the country. After reading the article, answer the
following questions:
1. What is the position of the church in the war on drugs
campaign?
2. What is the context of the Philippine state's campaign against
drugs?
3. How are other religious organizations responding to the state's
campaign?

Types of Religious Practitioners

Religious practices are performed by individuals in varying capacities.
The four main types of religious practitioners are shaman, sorcerer and
witch, medium, and priest.
A shaman is also known as a community healer. It is a position that is
usually occupied by a male who has fairly high status in his community. A
shaman is also involved in other nonreligious activities in his community,
making his religious function an occasional preoccupation.
A sorcerer and a witch are poorly regarded in their societies due to the
perceived malevolence that they inflict on individuals. They have very low
social and economic status, and they are often ostracized by members of
their communities. Accordingly, a sorcerer uses “materials, objects, and
medicines to invoke supernatural malevolence,” whereas a witch can
accomplish “malevolence by means of thoughts and emotions alone”
(Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010).
A medium is well favored by members of his or her community as he or
she is involved in healing rituals while in a possessed trance. A medium is
also capable of performing divination to predict future courses of action.
Most mediums tend to be females who perform other roles when not in
religious practice.
A priest tends to be a male whose sole preoccupation is to officiate
religious ceremonies and rituals. Due to his status in religious hierarchy, he
is highly regarded by community members.
Types of Religious Activities
Humans interact with the divine in various forms. There are five major
forms of religious activities.

Magic
This form of religious activity constitutes the “manipulation of
supernatural forces for the purpose of intervening in a wide range of human
activities and natural events” (Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010). Although
popularly related to forms of trickery, the anthropological definition of
magic is more complex than a fast hand maneuver of playing cards. Magic
deals with solving a current problem by seeking the intervention of the
divine through the performance and offering of gifts. The Native American
practice of rain dance to invoke deities to release rain is an example of
magic.

Divination
This religious activity intends to gain from the divine practical answers
for any concern that may range from war plans to marriage choices. One of
the most popular forms of divination is the I-Ching, an ancient Chinese
numerical system that is believed to predict future occurrences. This was
highly popular during the Warring States Period of China, as military
leaders utilized the I-Ching to strategize campaigns.

Sorcery and Witchcraft

Popularized by modern literature such as the Harry Potter novels,
sorcery and witchcraft have been depicted by media as a socially accepted
activity. However, in most societies where witchcraft and sorcery are
believed to exist, practitioners of these types of religious acts are usually
marginalized and ostracized as they are perceived to be bringers of
malevolence and misfortune.
A sorcerer inflicts harm on individuals with the use of witchcraft tools
such as dolls, wands, and medicines. The practice of voodoo is an example
of this, as practitioners use objects related to the victim such as hair or
pieces of their clothing to cause sickness or pain on them.
The practice of witchcraft promotes the same effect with a mere
difference in method. Unlike with sorcery that uses materials to inflict harm,
witchcraft only uses emotions and words of the practitioner to impact its
victim. The Filipino belief in kulam sa hangin, which inflicts harm on the
victim through curses uttered by a practitioner, is an example of this
religious activity.

Prayers, Feasts, and Sacrifices

These activities promote a direct interaction with the divine, as
individuals or groups communicate their thoughts and desires to the
supernatural through uttered requests (prayers), celebrations (feasts), and
gifts (sacrifices).

Beyond Walls 14.2 Apply It in Real Life

Track: Academic
You are a visual sociologist who is tasked to document the practices
of a religious group in your town. As a visual sociologist, your method
of studying society is through the photographs that portray the social
realities of the people involved. To complete this task, you should take
10 photos of the activities and performances of the religious
organization that highlight its orientation and biases. For every photo,
write a 100-word abstract that would point out your findings and key
arguments. Submit the electronic copies to your teacher who will
evaluate your work based on accuracy of context, comprehensiveness of
abstract content, and aesthetic appeal.

What Have I Learned So Far?

1. What are the varying definitions of sorcery?

2. How do humans interact with the supernatural?
 3. Why is there a demand to separate the church from the state?
4. How are religious institutions formed?

Religious Organizations
Human groups create various religious organizations depending on the
political and economic norms of their society. Anthropologists associate
religious organizations to the concept of cult. A cult is popularly defined as
a small group of individuals who have extreme religious beliefs and
practices. On the contrary, Anthony Wallace, an anthropologist, argued that
a cult is “not as group of people, rather [is] an organized system associated
with cultural beliefs and practices which also make it a social structure”
(Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010).
There are four types of cults: individualistic cults, shamanistic cults,
communal cults, and ecclesiastical cults. The degree of complexity of these
organizations is related to the extent by which labor specialization is
enforced in the society. Figure 14.6 presents individualistic cults as the least
complex religious structure, whereas ecclesiastical cults are held as the most
complex.

Fig. 14.6. Graph on complexity of religious structures

 Adapted from: [Link]
6/religious_organizations2012.pdf (accessed 30 October
2015)

Individualistic cults tend to be practiced in food-collecting societies

where equality is central to the group's culture. Due to this group dynamics,
individuals are able to access the divine without restrictions or need for an
intercessor. The practice of no role specialization in these groups further
foster the capacity of every individual to communicate with the
supernatural. The Crow Indian practice of vision quest is an example of this.
In this activity, a Crow Indian male goes on a solitary journey to gain a
divine revelation on his nature and identity. Participants of this activity often
return to their group with a vision of whom they should be and what their
goal in life is. This is not an exclusive organization as it can be merged with
other forms of cults.
Shamanistic cults are similar to the structure of individualist cults except
that this type believes in the shaman or medicine man. This cult is also
present in most egalitarian societies that are based on economies focused on
foraging, horticulture, and pastoralism. The functions of the shaman
includes healing, intercession, and punishment. The authority of the shaman
is rooted in the belief of the participants on his religious experiences. The
capacity of the shaman to heal is gained through training from older
shamans. The legitimacy of the shaman's power is temporary depending on
his perceived efficiency.
Similar to shamanistic cults, communal cults allow a group direct access
to the divine except for situations wherein the expertise of a shaman or a
witch is needed. This cult is often present in societies with labor
specialization. In such societies, a specific group of individuals has direct
access to scarce values and resources based on their economic contribution.
For example, pastoral societies tend to favor men as they are the ones
primarily involved in animal herding. In such societies, men are also given
more access to religious activities and rituals.
The most common feature of ecclesiastical cults is having full-time
religious practitioners referred to as priests. This type of cult is often present
in highly stratified societies where individuals have unequal access to values
and resources. Reflecting this characteristic, ecclesiastical cults encourage
unequal access to the supernatural creating the need for regular intercessors.

Big Idea
Religious tolerance and acceptance stem from an
understanding of the plurality of religious orientation and their
practices.

What Have I Learned So Far?

1. How are religious institutions different from one another?

2. What are the varying definitions of a “cult”?

Extend Your Knowledge

The US has currently seen the rise of religious bigotry that targets
specific religious groups that are unduly associated to extremist
movements.
Go to [Link]
of-religious-tolerance-61312684/ to read an article presenting the history
of religious tolerance in the US. It will provide you a background on the
current religion-based discrimination occurring in the US.

Essential Learning
Humans have created religions and beliefs in the supernatural to help
them cope with their daily struggles with their environment. The type of
religion present in a society mirrors the social structures present in that
society, such that monotheism is typically found in societies that have a
unitary form of leadership. Exclusivist and stratified concepts associated
to religion are the factors that lead to discrimination due to intolerance of
varying orientation.