IntroductionToVectors-Part1.

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1 | Linear Algebra

Vectors
Christopher Athaide
Boston University Metropolitan College
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Motivation

Recall the arithmetic operations on scalars.

◼ We have a set along with two binary operations, + and  .

◼ These operations provide the sets with some additional structure.

We would like to extend these operations to more structured sets, e.g. blocks of numbers. Let
us see what we can accomplish.
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Introduction

A vector of size n is defined as a column of n numbers.

A vector is an object that has both magnitude and direction.

Vector Notation

Typewritten vectors are often written in lowercase boldface: v.

Handwritten vectors often have an arrow on top: 

v.

We use the subscript notation vi to refer to the individual elements of a vector.

Examples
v1 8
v= =
v2 6
w1 3
w = w2 = 4
w3 12

Vector Symbolic Numerical Dimension

v1 8
v 2
v2 6
w1 3
w w2 4 3
w3 12

We use parentheses ( ) or brackets [ ] to include elements of a vector .

Physical Interpretation of Vectors

A vector between points A and B is denoted A B and is drawn with an arrow starting at A and
ending at B.
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Each vector contains two important pieces of information

1. Its length (or magnitude) and
2. The direction in which it points.

Equivalent Vectors

The starting point of the vector does not matter.

Vectors A B and C D are equivalent since they point in the same direction and have the same
magnitude.

D
B

C
A

Position Vectors

For vector A B, an equivalent position vector has its tail at the origin.

y
3.0 B
2.5
〈3,2〉
2.0 (3,2)
1.5
1.0 A position vector
0.5
x
1 2 3 4

The vector 〈3, 2〉 and the point (3, 2) are easy to confuse. The entries in the vector are compo-
nents and the entries in the point are coordinates.
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Vector Operations

1) Vector Addition

Algebraic Method

We add vectors algebraically. If u = 〈u1 , u2 〉 and v = 〈v1 , v2 〉, then:

u + v = 〈u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 〉

In 3D, if u = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉 and v = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉, then:

u + v = 〈u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 〉

For example, if u = 〈3, 2〉 and v = 〈1, 2〉, then:

u + v = 〈3 + 1, 2 + 2〉 = 〈4, 4〉

Geometric Method

To add vectors geometrically, start with u and put a copy of v with its tail at the head of u.

Then u + v extends from the tail of u to the head of the copy of v. This gives a triangle rule for
adding vectors.

Alternatively, you can start with v and place a copy of u with its tail at the head of v to
compute:

u+v=v+u
y
4

3 u
v

2 u +v

v
1 u

x
1 2 3 4
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2) Scalar Multiplication

In the context of vectors, numbers are referred to as scalars.

Algebraic Method

Multiplying a vector u = 〈u1 , u2 〉 by a scalar c is:

c u = 〈c u1 , c u2 〉

In 3D, if u = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉, then:

In[101]:= c u = 〈c u1 , c u2 , c u3 〉

Geometric Method

Geometrically, multiplying a vector by c stretches the vector if c 1, compresses the

vector if 0 c < 1 and reflects the vector through the origin if c < 0.

10

5
w

- 10 - 5c w 5 10

-5

- 10

3) Vector Subtraction

If u = 〈u1 , u2 〉 and v = 〈v1 , v2 〉, then:

u - v = 〈u1 - v1 , u2 - v2 〉

In 3D:

u - v = 〈u1 - v1 , u2 - v2 , u3 - v3 〉

Graphically, to subtract v from u, simply add - v to u.

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u
v

u +v

v
u -v

u -v

Vectors in Two Dimensions

A vector in two dimensions is a ordered list of two real numbers.

4
Example: is a vector in two dimensions
-3

2
The set of all vectors in two dimensions is denoted by  .

Two vectors in 2 are equal if and only if their corresponding entries are equal.
4 7
Thus, and are not equal, because vectors in 2 are ordered pairs of real numbers.
7 4

Geometry in 2

Define a rectangular coordinate system in the plane .

a
Then you can identify a geometric point (a, b ) with the column vector :
b
x2 x2

(1, 2) (1, 2)

(-1, 1) (-1, 1)

x1

(2, -1) (2,

If u and v in 2 are represented as points in the plane,

then u + v corresponds to the fourth vertex of a parallelogram.
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x2
u+v

x1
0

Vectors in 3

Vectors in 3 are 3 × 1 column matrices with three entries.

They are represented geometrically by points in three-dimensional coordinate space, with

arrows from the origin .
2
The vectors a = 3 and 2 a are displayed in the following figure :
5

The Vector Space n

If n is a positive integer, n denotes the set of all vectors in n dimensions.

u1
u2
Each vector in n is an n × 1 column matrix u = .
⋮
un

Vectors in n dimensions can be combined by using scalar multiplication and addition.

The set of all vectors in n dimensions with these opis referred to as the vector space n .
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Special Vectors

The vector whose entries are all zero is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0.

The zero vector is a vector of all zeros.

In 2D, 0 = 〈0, 0〉 and in 3D, 0 = 〈0, 0, 0〉.

Note that || 0 || = 0 and that 0 does not have an associated direction.

Vectors with magnitude 1 are called unit vectors. Some authors indicate unit vectors with u ,
which is read “u-hat.”
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The Magnitude of a Vector

In two dimensions, the Pythagorean theorem shows that the magnitude of a vector
u = 〈u1 , u2 〉 is:

|| u || = u21 + u22

In 3D:

|| u || = u21 + u22 + u23

u u2

u1

Separating Magnitude and Direction

If u ≠ 0, then:
u
u = || u || ×
|| u ||
u
|| u ||

This looks trivial, but it algebraically separates the magnitude of a vector || u || from its
u
direction ||u|| , which is helpful in applied problems.
u
Note that ||u||
points in the same direction as u, but it has unit length.

y
2

1 u
u
|| u ||
x
1 2 3
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Special Unit Vectors

Let i = 〈1, 0, 0〉, j = 〈0, 1, 0〉 and k = 〈0, 0, 1〉.

Then:
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Properties of Vectors

Let u, v and w be vectors and let a, b and c be scalars.

1. u + v = v + u
2. u + 0 = u
3. a(u + v ) = a u + a v
4. (a b) u = a(b u)
5. u + (v + w) = (u + v ) + w
6. u + (- u) = 0
7. (a + b) u = a u + b u
8. 1 u = u
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Summary

If u = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉, v = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉 and c is a scalar, then u + v = 〈u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 〉,

u - v = 〈u1 - v1 , u2 - v2 , u3 - v3 〉 and c u = 〈c u1 , c u2 , c u3 〉.

u + v is computed geometrically by adding head-to-tail. u +v

u - v is computed by adding - v to u head-to-tail. u +v

u -v

u -v
Scalar multiplication of vectors stretches, compresses and/or reflects them.

i =〈1, 0, 0〉, j =〈0, 1, 0〉 and k =〈0, 0, 1〉 are standard unit vectors.

u = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉 = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k.

The norm or magnitude of u = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉 is || u || = u1 2 + u2 2 + u3 2 .

u
||u||
is a unit vector.

Acknowledgement

These notes draw heavily from the lectures in Linear Algebra at Wolfram U. The code for some of the plots
has been used in this document.