MAINTAIN SAFE, HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT AND FITTING & MACHINING MODULE

SHE, FITTING AND MACHINING THEORY NOTES

Common to all NC Automotive courses

COMMON TERMS
SHE policy is a document outlining an organization's commitment and approach to
managing health and safety in the workplace.
Risk is a situation involving exposure to danger. (i.e is a measure of the likelihood that
the hazard will manifest or cause some degree of harm)
Risk assessment is a systematic process of evaluating the potential risk that may be
involved in a projected activity or undertaking.
Accident is an unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally,
typically resulting in damage or injury.
Near Accident is an unplanned event that has the potential to cause but does not actually
result in human injury, environmental or equipment damage or an interruption to normal
operation.
Incident is an occurrence or situation arising in the course of work that resulted in or
could have resulted in injuries, illness, and damage to health.
First Aid refers to medical attention that is usually administered immediately after the
injury occurs and at the location where it occurred.
Safety refers to the condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk or
injury
Hazard source or situation with the potential to cause harm if not controlled
Hazard Identification the process of recognizing that a hazard exists and defining its
characteristics
Harm this includes death, major injury and any form of physical and mental health
Risk Assessment this is the overall process of estimating the magnitude/extent of risk
and deciding whether the risk is tolerable or not
Unconscious is when a person is in a state of not being awake
Victim a person who suffers from a disaster or other adverse circumstance

LEGISLATION & REGULATIONS CONCERNING SAFETY

• Health and Safety act
• Factories Act
• Workman Compensation act
• Minerals & Mining act
• Safety Representatives and Safety Committees Regulations

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Notification of Accidents and General Occurrences Regulations

• The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations
• The Protection of Eyes Regulations
• Electricity at Work Regulations
• Low Voltage Electrical Equipment (Safety) Regulations. Abrasive Wheels
Regulations Noise at Work Regulations.
HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT
It is essential to observe safe working practices not only to safeguard yourself, but also to
safeguard the people with whom you work. The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act
provides a comprehensive and integrated system of law for dealing with the health, safety
and welfare of work-people and the general public as affected by industrial, commercial and
associated activities. The Act places the responsibility for safe working equally upon: a)
The employer
b) The employee
c) The manufacturers and suppliers of materials, goods, equipment and machinery

EMPLOYERS’ RESPONSIBILITIES
All employers must, by law, maintain a safe place to work. To fulfil all the legal obligations
imposed upon them, employers must ensure that:

• The workplace is provided with a safe means of access and exit so that in the case of
an emergency (such as fi re) no one will be trapped. This is particularly important
when the workplace is not at ground level.
• Provide protective clothing and equipment
• A safe, healthy and comfortable working environment
• Provide adequate and suitable natural and artificial lighting in the workplace
• Provision for safe handling, storing, transportation and use of dangerous substances
such as compressed gases (e.g. oxygen and acetylene), and toxic and flammable
solvents.

EMPLOYEES’ RESPONSIBILITY
• All employees (including you) are as equally responsible for safety their safety and
the safety of other workmates.
• Learn the safe way of doing each task. This is also the correct way. 2. Use the safe
way of carrying out the task in practice.
• Ask for instruction if you do not understand a task or have not received previous
instruction.
• Be constantly on your guard against careless actions by yourself or by others.
• Practice good housekeeping at all times, e.g. keep your working area clean and tidy
and your tools and equipment in good condition.
• Co-operate promptly in the event of an accident or a fire.
• Report all accidents to your instructor or supervisor.

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Draw your instructor’s or your supervisor’s attention to any potential hazard you have
noticed.
FACTORIES ACT
The Factories and Works Act, Chapter 14:08 of 1996, provides for the registration and
control of factories, the regulation of conditions of work in factories, supervision of the use
of machinery and precautions against accidental injury to persons employed on structural
work.

• It also includes the adaptation for sale or use of any article; the sorting, assembling or
packing of any articles, including washing or filling bottles or other containers;
painting, spraying, construction, reconstruction, assembling, repairing or breaking up
of vehicles or parts thereof; printing by letterpress, lithography, photogravure or other
similar process, including any activity associated with the printing industry.
• The production and storage of gas in a holder of more than 150 cubic metres storage
capacity; the freezing, chilling or storage in cold storage of any article; the
slaughtering of livestock; the generation of electricity; photo-graphic work.
• As can be seen from this list, workshops, abattoirs, power stations, printing presses
and places where manufacturing takes place are all considered factories in terms of
the Act.

They are, therefore, subject to the Act’s provisions.

WORKMAN COMPENSATION ACT
• An Act to provide for the compensation and medical treatment of workmen who
suffer injury or contract disease in the course of their employment.
• It is a scheme established in terms of Statutory Instrument 68 of 1990 for the
provision of financial relief to workers and or their dependents when a worker is
injured or killed in a work related accident or suffers from a work related disease or
dies thereof.

WORKERS’ COMPENSATION INSURANCE FUND CLAIMS

• Employees injured at work or someone acting on their behalf can lodge a claim for
compensation under the Workers’ Compensation scheme by notifying the employer
of the accident in writing.
• The employer is then responsible for notifying NSSA. Part VI of Statutory Instrument
68 of 1990, which governs the operation of the National Social Security Authority
• Accident Prevention and Workers’ Compensation Scheme, sets out the procedure for
obtaining compensation.
• Section 47(1)(a) of the statutory instrument states: “Written notice of the accident
causing disablement or death of a worker shall be given by or on behalf of the worker
as soon as reasonably possible after the happening of the accident to the employer and
such notice shall constitute a claim for compensation.”
• The employer has an obligation to inform NSSA of such accidents, if he is aware of
them, whether or not such notice has been given to him.

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Failure to provide such notice to the employer does not prevent compensation being
paid if it is proved that the employer knew of the accident from any other source at
the time it occurred or soon afterwards but failed to report the accident to NSSA.
• Every accident arising out of and in the course of employment must be reported to
NSSA. Although the regulations specify that the employer should be notified in
writing of the accident as soon as reasonably possible, they permit claims to be
accepted within 12 months after the accident.
• Claims may be accepted even later than that if the NSSA general manager considers
that neither the Worker’s Compensation Insurance Fund nor the employer would be
seriously prejudiced or if the failure to give notice or any inaccuracy in the notice was
due to a mistake, absence from Zimbabwe or any other reasonable cause.
• The employer is required within three working days of an accident in which a worker
is disabled, or so injured as to be certified unfit to work for a day or more, to make a
record of the name and address of the worker, date and time of the accident, nature of
the accident, place where the accident happened, the worker’s earnings at the time of
the accident and any other relevant particulars concerning the accident or claim for
compensation.
• The employer is required to notify NSSA in writing of the accident within 14 days of
its occurrence, failure of which a penalty determined by the NSSA general manager is
levied on the employer. The written notice should be submitted on form WCIF 14 to
the nearest NSSA office.
• If the accident is serious or fatal, the employer should contact the nearest NSSA office
and the police within 24 hours.
• The WCIF 14 form has three sections. Section A is to be completed by the employer.
• It gives details of the employer, the injured worker and members of the worker’s
family, the employee’s monthly earnings, the job he performs and details of the
accident, as well as the period the worker was incapacitated.
• Section B is a signed declaration by the worker or the worker’s representative that he
or she agrees with the statements by the employer in Section A. Section C is for
compensation payment instructions and should be signed by the worker.
• The injured worker should, when submitting his claim to the employer, furnish a
certificate from a medical practitioner or dental surgeon showing the nature and
extent of the injury or illness, whether or not he is fit for work and, if not, the reason
for the unfitness and the period of likely temporary disablement.
• If the injured worker is unable to return to work, he should furnish NSSA, through his
employer, with a medical certificate confirming the off duty period.
• Where the period of temporary disablement has ended and the worker is still suffering
disablement, he should provide a certificate from a doctor or dental surgeon
confirming that and stating the assessed degree of disability.
• When an accident is reported to NSSA or comes to NSSA’s attention, an inquiry is
initiated or other steps taken to enable it to decide on any claim or liability under the
Workers’ Compensation scheme.
• Civil servants and domestic workers are not currently covered by the NSSA Workers’
Compensation scheme. If a worker has been temporarily disabled for three months

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from the date of the accident, NSSA may require him to submit himself for
examination by a medical practitioner.
The medical practitioner may recommend that the worker undergoes further or a
different course of treatment, certify the worker is fit to return to work or indicate
what work he is fit to perform or certify that he is permanently disabled and award a
degree of disability.
• NSSA pays all the worker’s medical expenses related to a work injury or ailment. It
guarantees the injured worker’s normal monthly pay for the first 30 days after the
accident and a percentage thereafter.
• If the injury results in permanent disability the worker is paid a lump sum if the
disability is 30 percent or less. If the disability is more than 30 percent then a monthly
pension is paid. The pension includes allowances for children up to the age of 19.
• If a worker dies as the result of a work-related accident, the surviving spouse receives
two-thirds of the pension the deceased person would have been entitled to.
• If there is more than one wife, the amount is shared equally among them. The children
also receive allowances.
• If the surviving spouse remarries, then a lump sum equivalent to 24 months pension is
paid and the pension is terminated, the children’s allowances remain the same.
• If an unmarried person dies as a result of a work-related accident, any dependants,
who could be parents or sisters or brothers, receive an allowance, provided their
dependency on the deceased person can be established beyond reasonable doubt.
• NSSA provides full rehabilitation services for seriously injured workers at its
Workers’ Compensation Rehabilitation Centre in Bulawayo.
• This article is published by the National Social Security Authority as a public service.

Readers can get in touch with NSSA on (04) 70566 for any queries or visit their nearest
NSSA offices.

MINERALS AND MINING ACT

The Mines and Minerals Act provides for different procedures for certain types of minerals
and different types of land. The mining of coal, mineral oils, natural gas and nuclear energy
source minerals have rules that are different from other minerals in terms of the acquisition of
the rights.
SHEQ is an acronym for Safety, Health, Environment and Quality. This acronym is most
commonly used regarding workplace SHEQ management. A SHEQ manager is the individual
in charge of occupational health and safety, environment and quality assurance.
REASONS FOR HAVING SHE POLICY IN YOUR ORGANISATION
• To train workers about Safety and Health issues
• To reduce risk and the number of accidents
• To creates safer environment and culture

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• To encourages teamwork
• To ensuring that workplace is more efficient and productive
INFORMATION IN A SHE POLICY DOCUMENT
Date of production of SHE document or updates
• Commitment to adhere to SHE policy and government laws concerning SHE
• Company representative responsible for SHE enforcement and review
• Clear measures to enforce SHE policy
• Responsibilities of the employer
• Responsibilities of the employee
• SHE related grievances resolution procedures and channels
WORKERS` RIGHTS THAT CAN BE FOUND IN COMPANY SHE POLICY
DOCUMENT
• The right to know about hazards in the work place.
• The right to refuse unsafe work
• The right to participate in health and safety practices.
• The right to follow all lawful Employer safety and health rules.

ACCIDENT
Accidents are the mishaps leading injury to man, machines or tools and equipment and may
cause injury and result either death or temporary disablement or permanent disablement of
the industrial employees.
It can be defined as an occurrence, condition, or situation arising in the course of work that
may have resulted in injuries, illnesses, damage to health, or fatalities.
UNSAFE CONDITIONS IN A WORKPLACE
Unsafe working conditions are conditions that are dangerous or hazardous to any person
expected to be on or authorized to be on the premises of place of work. These conditions can
prevent workers from proper job function, and pose a risk to their health and safety.
Employers are required to ensure that employees’ working environment is free from known
dangers.
OSHA {Occupational Safety and Health Administration} provides workplace safety
standards and training to ensure that employers are meeting this goal for their workers. When
an employer fails to adhere to these rules and standards, it is generally presumed that they are
not providing a safe working environment for their employees and are leaving them open to
all types of work injuries.
EXAMPLES OF UNSAFE WORKING CONDITIONS IN THE WORKPLACE
• Inadequate or malfunctioning warning systems (or lack of such a system)
• Flooring that has debris, water, or slippery substances that create a hazard

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• Blocked safety exits

• Equipment that is not maintained or not working properly
• Failure to have safety guards
Unsanitary working conditions, which can increase the risk of illness or death, like
Lightroom
• Hazardous materials that can harm or injure workers, including but not limited to
biological and chemical hazards
One of the most common elements that create a dangerous work environment is the failure to
keep up with maintenance. Things like regular cleaning and repairing equipment and working
areas can go a long way toward ensuring worker safety.
UNSAFE ACT
Unsafe Acts can be defined as an employee ignoring the prescribed safety standards or
company policies.
• Lack of or improper use of PPE.
• Failure to tagout/lockout.
• Operating equipment at unsafe speed.
• Failure to warn people in the area of work activity.
• Bypass or removal of safety devices.
• Using defective equipment.
• Use of tools for other than their intended purpose.
• Working in hazardous locations without adequate protection or warning.
• Improper repair of equipment. Horseplay.
UNSAFE CONDITIONS
A condition in the work place that is likely to cause property damage or injury. For
example:

• Defective tools, equipment, or supplies.

• Inadequate supports or guards.
• Inadequate warning systems.
• Fire and explosion hazards.
• Poor housekeeping.
• Uneven walking surfaces.
• Excessive noise.
• Poor ventilation.
GENERAL FEATURES OF A WORK-SAFE WORKSHOP
• Good housekeeping
• Enough lighting
• Enough ventilation for aeration
• Safety switches
• Enough fire extinguishers

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GENERAL WORKSHOP SAFETY RULES TO OBSERVE

• Always wear appropriate safety clothing

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• Hair should be short and tidy or tied and kept away from running machines
• Know how to switch on and off machines
• Do not clean or service machines while in motion
• Wearing jewellery in the work shop is not allowed
BEHAVIOUR IN WORKSHOP
• No horseplay
• Don’t run, you may slip
• Scrapped work can seriously accidents and even fatalities that’s why we do
housekeeping.
• Incorrect operation of equipment with moving machinery or cutters.
• Someone being pushed against moving machinery or factory transport. Contact
with electricity, compressed air or dangerous chemicals.
WORKSHOP SAFETY COLOURS
COLOUR MEANING
Green Safety equipment or Information
Red Danger /Higher risk of injury or death/ Fire Protection equipment
Blue Health / Safe
Orange Moderate risk of injury / Guarding devices
White Poison or Toxic
Yellow Caution statement / Minor risk of injury

PPE and PPC

THE MAIN PURPOSE OF USING PPES/PPC
This is worn to minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and
illness
PPE
Personnel Protective Equipment
• Welding shield
• Apron
• Leather pads
• Ear buds
• Helmet
• Goggles
• Respirator PPC
Personnel Protective Clothing
• Safety shoes
• Work suits

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• Gloves
HAZARDS
WHAT ARE HAZARDS?
• A hazard is a source or a situation with the potential for harm in terms of human
injury or ill-health, damage to property, damage to the environment, or a combination
of these.
• Hazards at work may include noisy machinery, a moving forklift, chemicals,
electricity, working at heights, a repetitive job, or inappropriate behaviour that
adversely affects a worker’s safety and health.
HAZARDS IN THE WORKSHOP
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
• Biological - bacteria, viruses, insects, plants, birds, animals, and humans, etc.,
• Chemical - depends on the physical, chemical and toxic properties of the chemical,
• Ergonomic - repetitive movements, improper set up of workstation, etc.,
• Physical - radiation, magnetic fields, pressure extremes (high pressure or vacuum),
noise, etc.,
• Psychosocial - stress, violence, etc.,
• Safety - slipping/tripping hazards, inappropriate machine guarding, equipment
malfunctions or breakdowns.
COMMON HAZARDS
NOISE
Excessive noise can be a dangerous pollutant of the working environment. The effects of
noise can result in

• Fatigue leading to careless accidents

• Mistaken communications between workers leading to accidents.
• Ear damage leading to deafness. Permanent nervous disorders.
Noise should be suppressed but that’s not possible, then you should be insulated from the
noise by sound absorbent screens and/or ear-protectors (ear-muffs).
SOLVENTS
Exposure to small concentrations of narcotic substances causes headaches, giddiness and
drowsiness. Under such conditions you are obviously prone to accidents since your
judgement and reactions are adversely affected. Solvents used are used in paints, adhesives,
polishes and degreasing agents. Examples of solvents are:

• Ethanol, acetone, thinners, turpentine, etc.

IRRITANT EFFECTS
Many substances cause irritation to the skin both externally and internally.

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External irritants can cause industrial dermatitis by coming into contact with your skin. The
main irritants met with in a workshop are:
• Oils (particularly cutting oils and coolants), adhesive, degreasing solvents,
electroplating chemicals. {external damage}
• Asbestos, Fibres, Fumes, vapours {internal damage}
TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Toxic substances, also known as systemics, affect the fundamental organs and bodily
functions. They damage your brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, your central nervous system
and your bone marrow. Their effects cannot be reversed and thus lead to chronic ill-health
and, ultimately, early death. These toxic substances may enter the body in various ways,
such as breathing in, digestive system, through skin, etc.
METHODS OF BARRICADING HAZADOUS AREA

• Ribbons
• Fence
• Screens

PERSONAL HYGIENE
• Work suits should be regularly cleaned as they tend to look scruffy.
• Dirty on your work suit can also cause your skin to become infected.
• Wash your hand before eating.

CODES USED ON STORAGE OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

COLOUR MEANING
Green Caution
Red Flammability
Blue Health
orange reactivity
White

MANUAL LIFTING OF LOADS

INDIVIDUAL LIFTING
• In the engineering industry it is often necessary to lift fairly heavy loads. As a general
rule, loads lifted manually should not exceed 20kg.
• However, even lifting loads less than 20kg can cause strain and lifting loads
incorrectly is one of the major causes of back trouble.

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You should start the lift in a balanced squatting position with your legs at hip width
apart and one foot slightly ahead of the other.
• The load to be lifted should be held close to your body. Make sure that you have a
safe and secure grip on the load. Before taking the weight of the load, your back
should be straightened and as near to the vertical as possible
• Keep your head up and your chin drawn in; this helps to keep your spine straight and
rigid.
• To raise the load, first straighten your legs; this ensures that the load is being raised
by your powerful thigh muscles and bones.
• To complete the lift, raise the upper part of your body to a vertical position
TEAM LIFTING:
A lifting party is formed to move particular load, the team leader is solely responsible for the
safe completion of the task. Also, the leader shall not take part in the actual lifting as he
ensure that:

• Everyone understands what the job involves and the method chosen for its
completion.
• The area is clear of obstructions, the floor is safe and will provide a good foothold.
• Members of lifting team are of similar height and physique.
• Ensure that they wearing any necessary protective clothing.
• Each person should be positioned so that the weight is evenly distributed
• The team leader should take up a position which gives the best all round view of the
area and will help prevent the development of any hazardous situation.
CORRECT MANUAL LIFTING
a) Keep straight and near vertical
b) Keep your spine straight
c) Straighten your legs to raise the load

Any equipment moved in order to carry out the operation is replaced in its original
position when the task has been completed.
MOVING LOADS THAT ARE TOO HEAVY TO LIFT
Loads that are too heavy to be lifted or carried can still be moved manually by using a
crowbar and rollers. The rollers should be made from thick-walled tubes so that there is no
danger of trapping your fingers if the load should move whilst positioning the rollers.

FIRST AID
It is the immediate and temporary care given to a person who has an accidental injury
or a sudden illness, pending the arrival of doctor. It includes mental help as well as
treatment of injury to a victim.

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MINIMUM FIRST AID FACILITIES

First aid cabinet should be kept ready with
First Aid box
• Cotton wool
• Bandages
• Anti-space liquid
• Ointment and powder Adhesive tape etc.
• Antiseptic wipes
• Sterile blades
• Eye pads
• Disposable gloves
• Scissors
• Cold compressions
• Tweezers
• Safety pins
• Thermometer
• Pain killers

A trained first aid attendant should be available in the in the workshop.

Hospital facilities and services of a doctor should be available.

INJURIES
Injuries can range from minor cuts and bruises to broken bones and life-threatening injuries.
It is a very good idea to know what to do in an emergency.
• You must be aware of the accident procedure.
• You must know where to find your nearest first aid post. {Clinic} You must know
the quickest and easiest route to the first aid post.
• You must know who is the qualified first aid person on duty and where he/she can be
found).
If a qualified person is not available, summon the paramedics {ambulance} for emergency
services. It is because workshop’s houses materials and equipment that either running or not
thus, wounds can easily become infected due to dirty. Hence the need for a qualified person
to assess and treat wounds. If the wound{s} are assessed by an unqualified person, he or she
runs the risk of being sued if the situation goes sideways.

IN THE EVENT OF AN EMERGENCY

If you are first on the scene of a serious incident,
• Use proper first aid for the injury
• Ask someone to call a doctor and an ambulance if required
• Do not move the victim unless he is in danger of further injury.

BUT IF YOU ARE NOT QUALIFIED TO RENDER FIRST AID

Remain calm.

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• Get help quickly by sending for the appropriate skilled and qualified personnel.
Act and speak in a calm and confident manner to give the casualty confidence. Do
not attempt to move the casualty unless he/she is in danger of further injury Do not
administer fluids.
• Hand over to the experts as quickly as possible. Do not leave the victim alone
Reassure the victim that he will be all right because a good mental attitude is
necessary.

MINOR WOUNDS
If you have to treat yourself then wash the wound clean and apply a plaster. However, you
must seek medical advice if:
Sometimes there can be foreign bodies in minor wounds. Small pieces of glass or grit lying
on a wound can be picked off with tweezers or rinsed off with cold water before treatment.
However, you MUST NOT try to remove objects that are embedded in the wound; you may
cause further tissue damage and bleeding.
• Control any bleeding by applying firm pressure on either side of the object, and
raising the wounded part.
• Drape a piece of gauze lightly over the wound to minimize the risk of germs entering
it, then build up padding around the object until you can bandage without pressing
down upon it.
• Take or send the casualty to hospital.

MINOR BURNS AND SCALDS

These are treated to stop the burning, to relieve pain and swelling and to minimize the risk
of infection. If you are in any doubt as to the severity of the injury, seek the advice of a
doctor.

DO NOT
• Break blisters or interfere with the injured area; you are likely to introduce an
infection.
• Use adhesive dressings or strapping.
• Apply lotions, ointments, creams or fats to the injury.

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE

• Foreign bodies in the eye can lead to blurred vision with pain or discomfort.
• They can also lead to redness and watering of the eye.
• A speck of dust or grit, or a loose eyelash floating on the white of the eye can
generally be removed easily.
• However, a foreign body that adheres to, or penetrates the eyeball, or rests on the
coloured part of the eye, should NOT be removed, even by a person qualified in First
Aid.
• DO NOT touch anything sticking to, or embedded in, the eyeball or the coloured part
of the eye. Cover the affected eye with an eye pad, bandage both eyes, then take or
send the casualty to hospital.

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INCIDENTS REPORT
Generate incidents reports

The content/Items to include in the incident report

• Date
• Time
• Place
• Pre- incident
• Personnel involved

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• Actual incident (A concise but complete description of the incident)

• A description of the damages that resulted
• Risk mitigation tactics used to prevent the types of incident
• Post incident analysis
• Pictures of the area and any property damaged
• Video surveillance footage of the incident

FIRES AND FIRE SAFETY READINESS, COUNTER OF FIRE ACCIDENTS

WHAT IS FIRE?
A fire is the rapid oxidation (burning) of flammable materials at relatively high temperatures.
THREE ITEMS ARE REQUIRED TO CAUSE FIRE / THREE ELEMENTS OF FIRE
• Oxygen
• Fuel
• Heat

METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRE

• Remove Heat
• Remove Oxygen
• Remove fuel

COMMON CAUSES OF FIRES IN A WORKSHOP

• Poor housekeeping
• Poor aeration/air circulation
• Unattended working machinery
• Loose electrical circuits
• Overheating machinery
• Reactive substances near excessive heat/fire source
• Arson

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12 TIPS TO ENSURE A FIRE-SAFE WORKPLACE:

Step 1. Get Organized– Practice good workplace housekeeping. Clutter contributes to fires by
providing fuel and by preventing access to exits and emergency equipment.

Step 2. Designated Smoking Areas – Smoke only in designated areas, and extinguish smoking
materials safely. Never smoke in storerooms or chemical storage areas.

Step 3. Fire Extinguishers – Maintaining the appropriate type and number of fire extinguishers and
learn how to properly use a fire extinguisher.

Step 4. Electrical Hazards – Report all electrical hazards. Many fires start in faulty wiring and
malfunctioning electrical equipment.

Step 5. Access to Control Panels – Electrical control panels need to have free access maintained so
that the electric could be shut off easily.

Step 6. Maintenance – Maintain machinery to prevent overheating and friction sparks.

Step 7. Sprinkler Systems & Smoke Detectors – Never block sprinklers, firefighting
equipment or emergency exits. Observe clearances when stacking materials. Testing of
sprinkler systems and smoke detectors at least annually.

Step 8. Chemical Safety – Use and store chemicals safely. Read the label and the Material
Safety Data Sheet to determine flammability and other fire hazards. Provide adequate
ventilation when using and storing these substances.

Step 9. Waste Control & Storage – Control the accumulations of flammable and combustible
waste materials and residues so that they do not contribute to a fire emergency.

Step 10. Prevent Ignition – Use all precautions to prevent ignition in potentially explosive
atmospheres such as those containing flammable liquid vapors or fine particles. Use
nonsparking tools, and control static electricity as required.

Step 11. Exits – Emergency exit diagrams should be posted and emergency exits should be well
lit with neon-regulation signs.

Step 12. Contact Info – Employees should have a list of emergency contact phone numbers in
case of emergency. Remember that people will often panic in an intense situation; therefore
basics such as the company address, phone number and floor plan should be posted.

Prevention is always better than cure and it’s best to avoid catastrophe in the first place or at
least minimize the damage. The simple truth is that fire emergencies and disasters can strike
anyone, anytime, anywhere. So if a fire does break out in your workplace A-C-T, Don’t Panic

A – ASSESS THE SITUATION

C – CHOOSE YOUR RESPONSE

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T – TAKE ACTION

TYPES OF FIRES
Not all fires are the same. Per NFPA 10, burning may be classified into one or more of the
following fire classes and your fire protection specialist will select the right fire extinguisher
size and agent for the hazard.

Class A
Class A fires are fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth,
rubber, and many plastics.

Class B
Class B fires are fires in flammable liquids such as gasoline, petroleum
greases, tars, oils, oil-based paints, solvents, alcohols. Class B fires also
include flammable gases such as propane and butane. Class B fires do
not include fires involving cooking oils and grease.

Class C
Class C fires are fires involving energized electical equipment such as
computers, servers, motors, transformers, and appliances. Remove the
power and the Class C fire becomes one
of the other classes of fire.

Class D
Class D fires are fires in combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium, lithium, and potassium.

Class K
Class K fires are fires in cooking oils and greases such as animal and vegetable
fats.

Some types of fire extinguishing agents can be used on more than one class of fire. Others
have warnings where it would be dangerous for the operator to use on a particular fire
extinguishing agent.

There are 5 main fire extinguisher types – Water, Foam, Dry Powder, CO2 and Wet
Chemical. You should have the right types of fire extinguisher for your premises, or you
may not meet current regulations.
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The various types of fire extinguisher put out fires started with different types of fuel – these are
called ‘classes’ of fire. The fire risk from the different classes of fire in your business premises
will determine which fire extinguisher types you need.

Whilst there are 5 main types of fire extinguisher, there are different versions of both the
Water and Dry Powder extinguishers, meaning there are a total of 8 fire extinguisher types to
choose from. The 8 types of fire extinguisher are:

– Water
– Water Mist
– Water Spray
– Foam
– Dry Powder – Standard
– Dry Powder – Specialist – Carbon Dioxide (‘CO2’) – Wet Chemical

There is no one extinguisher type which works on all classes of fire.

Below is a summary of the classes of fire, and a quick reference chart showing which types of
extinguisher should be used on each. We then provide a detailed explanation of each type of
fire extinguisher below.

THE CLASSES OF FIRE

There are six classes of fire: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, ‘Electrical’, and Class F.

– Class A fires – combustible materials: caused by flammable solids, such as wood, paper,
and fabric
– Class B fires – flammable liquids: such as petrol, turpentine or paint
– Class C fires – flammable gases: like hydrogen, butane or methane
– Class D fires – combustible metals: chemicals such as magnesium, aluminum or
potassium
– Electrical fires – electrical equipment: once the electrical item is removed, the fire
changes class
– Class F fires – cooking oils: typically a chip-pan fire

Which fire extinguisher types are used for each class of fire? – quick guide

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The different types of extinguisher tackle different types of fire

Types of fire extinguisher – a detailed guide

Water Extinguishers
Overview:
Water extinguishers are the most common fire extinguisher type for class A fire risk. Most premises
will require either water or foam extinguishers.

Label Colour:
– Bright Red

Use for:
– Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
Do not use for:

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– Fires involving electrical equipment

– Kitchen fires
– Flammable gas and liquids

How water extinguishers work:

The water has a cooling effect on the fuel, causing it to burn much more slowly until the
flames are eventually extinguished.

Types of premises/business who may need water

extinguishers: – Buildings constructed of wood or other organic
materials – Premises where there are organic materials to be found
such as: o Offices o Schools o Hospitals o Residential properties o
Warehouses

In fact most buildings need either water or foam extinguishers.

Where to locate water extinguishers:

– By the exits on a floor where a Class A fire risk has been identified

Water spray extinguishers – what’s the difference?:

Water spray extinguishers are equipped with a spray nozzle, rather than a jet nozzle, meaning
a greater surface area can be covered more quickly and the fire put out more rapidly.

Water mist extinguishers – what’s the difference?

Water mist extinguishers have a different type of nozzle again which releases microscopic
water particles. These particles ‘suffocate’ the fire and also create a wall of mist between the
fire and the person using the extinguisher, reducing the feeling of heat.

Foam Extinguishers

Overview:
Foam extinguishers are most common type of fire extinguisher for Class B fires, but also
work on Class A fires as they are water-based.
Label Colour:
– Cream

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Use for:
– Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
Plus:
– Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol

Do not use for:

– Kitchen fires
– Fires involving electrical equipment – Flammable metals

How foam extinguishers work:

As with water extinguishers, foam extinguishers have a cooling effect on the fuel. On burning
liquids, the foaming agent creates a barrier between the flame and the fuel, extinguishing the
fire.

Types of premises/business who may need Foam extinguishers:

Buildings constructed of wood or other organic materials

Premises where there are organic materials to be found such as:

- Offices
- Schools
- Hospitals
- Residential properties
- Warehouses

Buildings where flammable liquids are stored

In fact most buildings need either water or foam extinguishers

Where to locate foam extinguishers:

Dry Powder Extinguishers

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Overview:
Standard dry powder extinguishers are also called ‘ABC’ extinguishers because they tackle
class A, B and C fires, however they are not recommended for use in enclosed spaces. This is
because the powder can be easily inhaled, and also the residue is very difficult to clean up
after. ABC powder extinguishers can also be used on some electrical fires. Specialist dry
powder extinguishers are used for flammable metals.

Label Colour:
– Blue

Use for:
– Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
Plus:
– Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol Plus:
– Flammable gases, like liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and acetylene Plus:
– Fires involving electrical equipment up to 1000V

Specialist dry powder extinguishers are only used on flammable metals, such as titanium and
magnesium.

Do not use for:

– Fires involving cooking oil
– Fires involving electrical equipment over 1000V
– or in enclosed spaces, such as offices or residential properties

How dry powder extinguishers work:

Dry powder extinguishers smother fires by forming a barrier between the fuel and the source of
oxygen.
Types of premises/business who may need Dry Powder extinguishers:
– Businesses using flammable gases for chemical processes
– Premises where welding and flame cutting takes place

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– Garage forecourts
– Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) dispensing plants – Premises with large, commercial boiler rooms

Where to locate Dry Powder extinguishers:

– Place dry powder extinguishers near to the source of the fire risk.

Specialist Dry Powder extinguishers – what’s the difference?:

Specialist dry powder extinguishers work in the same way as standard dry powder
extinguishers but are for use with flammable metals only. There are 2 types of specialist dry
powder extinguishers – ‘L2’ which only tackles lithium fires, and ‘M28’, for all other
flammable metal fires.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Overview:
CO2 extinguishers are predominantly used for electrical fire risks and are usually the main
fire extinguisher type provided in computer server rooms. They also put out Class B fires
(flammable liquids, such as paint and petroleum).

Label Colour:
– Black

Use for:
– Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol –
Electrical fires

Do not use for:

– Kitchen fires – especially chip-pan fires
– Combustible materials like paper, wood or
textiles – Flammable metals

How CO2 extinguishers work:

CO2 extinguishers suffocate fires by displacing the oxygen the fire needs to burn.
Types of premises/business who may need CO2 extinguishers:

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– Premises with electrical equipment, such

as: o Offices o Kitchens o Construction
sites o Server rooms

All work vehicles should also carry a smaller 2kg CO2 extinguisher.

Where to locate CO2 extinguishers:

Wet Chemical Extinguishers

Overview:
Wet chemical extinguishers are designed for use on Class F fires, involving cooking oils and
fats. They can also be used on Class A fires although it is more usual to have a foam or water
extinguisher for this type of fire risk.

Label Colour:
– Yellow

Use for:
– Cooking oil/fat fires – Organic materials
such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal

Do not use for:

– Flammable liquid or gas fires
– Electrical fires
– Flammable metals

How wet chemical extinguishers work:

Wet chemical extinguishers create a layer of foam on the surface of the burning oil or fat,
preventing oxygen from fuelling the fire any further. The spray also has a cooling effect.
Types of premises/business who may need wet chemical extinguishers:
– Commercial kitchens – Canteens

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Where to locate wet chemical extinguishers:

– Place near to the source of the fire risk.

DESCRIBE HOW YOU COULD EXTINGUISH A FIRE USING A FIRE

EXTINGUISHER
• Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the base of the fire
• Squeeze the handle together to discharge the extinguishing agent inside
• To stop discharge, release the handles
• Sweep the nozzle from side to side as you approach the fire, directing the
extinguishing agent at the base of the flames

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METAL PROPERTIES AND HEAT TREATMENT

FERROUS METALS
• Metals that chiefly contain iron with small properties of other metals. Metals that contain
iron.

Identification:
• Ferrous metals are attracted to magnets.
• They rust and corrode

GROUPS OF STEEL
Steels are grouped according to carbon content.
Low carbon steel {0.01% - 0.25%}
• Medium carbon steel {0.25% - 0.6%}
• High carbon steel {0.6% - 14%}

LOW CARBON STEEL {MILD STEEL}

Properties:
• Mild steel is malleable and ductile
• It bends easily
• Mild steel can be produced in different shapes
• It can be forged and welded easily
• It cannot be hardened but can be case hardened.
Uses
• For making pipes, wire, bolts, nuts, pots, pans, nails and car bodies.

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL:

Properties:
• It is fairly malleable when heated.
• Because of more carbon, medium carbon steel is tougher than mild steel.
Uses
• For making motor car parts, locomotive parts, structural reinforcement steel for building,
bolts, nuts, screws, steel nails and garden steel.

HIGH CARBON STEEL

Properties:
• It is brittle when hardened.
• High carbon steel can be hardened and tempered
• It is difficult to cut or drill
• It is tough when tempered Uses
• For making files, chisels, saws, twist drills, hacksaw blades, centre punches, hammer heads.
In fact, tool steel is used for making most of the workshop cutting tools.

CAST IRON
Properties:
• Cast iron is a brittle metal owing to the large percentage of carbon present in it.

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• It is hard to cut.
• Cast iron cannot be forged as it crumbles when hammered hot or cold.
• It casts and moulds easily.
Use
• For making car cylinder blocks, toilet cisterns, vices, charcoal pressing irons, wood plane
bodies, machine bases and tables, pairs of scissors, surface plates and piston rings.

WROUGHT IRONS:
Properties:
• It has very little traces of carbons
• Wrought iron can be shaped hot or cold.
• It is fibrous in structure thus it pins when filed.
• Wrought iron cannot be cast owing to te low carbon content in it.
• It is malleable and ductile.
• It weathers well as it develops an iron oxide surface which protects it from rust.
Uses
• For making crane hooks, sheet metal stakes, plough chains and hooks.

COATED STEEL AND ITS USES

1. Tinplate – mild steel coated with Tin. Used for making food cans.
2. Galvanized Iron – mild steel coated with zinc. Used for making roofing sheets.
3. Terne Plate – mild steel coated with lead. Used for making roofing sheets.

ALLOY STEELS

HIGH SPEED STEEL

Iron with carbon {0.6%} + Tungsten {+14 -18%} + Vanadium {+3%} + 3-5% Chromium &
molybdenum
Properties
• It is hard to cut
• It resists corrosion
• It is capable of cutting very hard metals and is wear resistant.
• High speed steel retains its hardness at high speeds.
Uses
• For making cutting tools for example, twist drills, lathe tools, milling cutters, circular saw
blades, wire drawing dies

STAINLESS STEEL
Iron with Chromium {18%} + Nickel {8%} + Magnesium {8%} Properties:
• It resist wear
• Stainless steel is tough
• It is corrosion resistant
Uses
• For making cutlery and cooking utensils, piston rods and kitchen sinks.

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MANGANESE STEEL
Manganese {1.5% - 3%}
Properties:
• It withstands great heat.

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Manganese steel can be work hardened.

• It is very tough.
Uses
• For making mechanical shovels, railway crossings, crushing machine, chains and
hooks.
HIGH TENSILE STEEL
Aka known as Chromium steel. Its is iron with Carbon {0.3%} + Chromium {0.7%-1.25%} +
Nickel {3.5% - 4.5%} Properties:
• It is resistant to wear.
• High tensile steel is very tough and strong.
• It is corrosion resistant.
Uses
• For making aircraft parts, shafts, bolts, turbine blades and gears.

NON-FERROUS METALS
• Metals that contain little or no iron.

Identification
• They don’t attract to the magnet.
• They don’t rust corrode.

ALLOY
Defined as a combination of 2 or more metals or a metal and non-metal material. There are 2
types of alloys namely,
• Ferrous alloys: combination of metals, one of which is iron, e.g., cast iron, alloy
steels, etc.
• Non-Ferrous alloys: combination of non-ferrous metals such as brass, bronze,
aluminium alloys & white metals.

ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is produced in an aluminium or reduction cell. The ore which contains aluminium
is called bauxite. The ore requires purification. Purification is done by a chemical process
called electrolysis. The process requires a lot of electricity to change or reduce crushed,
roasted and ground bauxite into pure aluminium.
Properties:
• Aluminium is very light in weight.
• It is malleable and ductile.
• It machines easily because it is soft.
• It pins when filed.
• Aluminium is difficult to solder as it forms oxides quickly when heated.
• It is a good conductor of electricity and heat.
• It polishes well.
Uses
For making pots, cups, pans, electricity cables, toothpaste containers, tubes, motorcar and
aircraft parts, light and heat reflectors

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DURALUMIN
Duralumin is an alloy of aluminium {95%}, copper {4%} and manganese {1%}.
Properties:
• It is light in weight on aluminium alloy.
• It is malleable and ductile.

COPPER
It is produced in the reverberatory furnace and a converter similar to the Bessemer convertor.
Copper ores are malachite and pyrites. After mining the ore, it is crushed and roasted. The
ore is then fed into a reverberatory furnace to produce copper matte. The oxidation of the
copper matte occurs in a convertor similar to the Bessemer. The metal is heated for about
eight to ten hours after which it is tapped. On cooling, the metal is further refined in a
reverberatory furnace.
Properties:
• Copper is malleable and ductile either in a hot or cold state.
• It is a good conductor of electricity and heat.
• It solders well.
• It forms alloys readily.

Uses
• For making rivets, electricity wire, soldering bits, domestic plumbing pipes and boiler
and firebox plates.

COPPER ALLOYS
1. BRASS
It is an alloy of copper {65%} and Zinc {35%}. Many types of brass are obtained by mixing
copper with zinc in various proportions.
Properties:
• Brass polishes well
• It solders easily
• It cannot be forged as it crumbles when heated.
• It is malleable and ductile.
Uses
• For making rivets, screws, wire, water taps, padlocks and keys.

GLIDING METAL
This is a type of brass. It is an alloy of copper{90%} and zinc {10%}.
Properties:
• It is the colour of gold and is expensive.
• It polishes well.
• Gliding metal is malleable and ductile.
Use
For making jewellery for example, rings, bangles and necklaces. It is also used for making
ornamentals. It is also used for making ornamental crafts like flower vases and trays.

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BRONZE
It is an alloy of copper {96%} and tin {4%}. Other bronzes can be produced when copper is
alloyed with other metals. For example, phosphor bronze which has 90% copper and 9% tin
and 1% phosphorus.
Properties:
• Bronze is a tough metal.
It is extremely resistant to corrosion and rust.
• It machines well.
Uses
• For making belts, bearings and some machine castings

TIN
Tin is not an alloy. Chief ores are tinstone and cassiterite. Tin is produced by a reduction
process in a reduction cell.
Properties
• Tin is very malleable and ductile.
• Tin is highly resistant to corrosion. This is the reason why it is used to coat mild steel
to produce a rust resistant metal called tinplate.
• It alloys well with other metals, for example, tin and lead to produce soft solder.
Uses
• To coat mild steel in food cans to prevent the can from rusting. Also used to produce
soft solder when alloyed with lead.

ZINC
It is not an alloy. Chief ores are sphalerite or blend. A concentrate of sphalerite or blend ores
is roasted I air. This done to burn away the sulphur found in the ore. Zinc is then produced by
the electrolytic or reduction processes.
Properties:
• It bends easily
• Zinc solders well Uses:
• Making brass when mixed with copper.
• Making galvanized iron when coated on mild steel.

LEAD
Its chief ore is called galena. The ore is roasted to burn impurities such as sulphur. It is then
fed into the blast furnace to be smelted into lead.
Properties:
• Lead is very heavy metal.
• It can be spread easily by hammering because it is very soft and malleable.
Use
• For making accumulator plates for car batteries, making cable coverings and making
irrigation water pipes {not for drinking water because of lead poisoning}

PROPERTIES OF STEEL & ALLOYS: (KEY TERMS)

• Ductility: ability to be drawn into wire without breaking.

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• Malleability: the ability of a metal to be beaten to flat sheet without breaking.

• Brittleness: the inability of a metal to resist fracture / deformation / shock loads
• Relative density: ratio between the weight of metal and the weight of the equal
volume of water.
• Fusibility: defined as the ease at which a metal melts when heated.
• Elasticity: ability of material to deform under load and return to its original shape
after the load have been removed.

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Plasticity: ability of a material to deform under load and retain its new shape after the
load has been removed.
• Hardness: the resistance of a metal to scratches/cuts/wear.
• Toughness: resistance to fracture or deformation.
• Conductivity of heat & electricity: ability of metal to allow passage of heat or
electricity.
• Creep: Slow plastic deformation that occurs prior to prolonged loading usually at
elevated temperatures.
• Fatigue: failure of metallic materials under repeated varying loads.
• Tenacity: ability of metallic material to resist fracture when stretched
• Compressibility: ability of material to withstand crushing
• Volatility: ability of metallic substance to change form from liquid to gas.
• Weldability: ability of material to welded with ease using all orthodox systems of
welding.

HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment of carbon steels

FORMS OF HEAT TREATMENT

1. ANNEALING
• The purpose of annealing is to soften steel to allow further work to be performed and
it relieve internal stresses and strains set up by previous working or use.
• To achieve annealing, heat the steel to a certain temperature and allow it to cool very
slowly. If heated in a furnace, allow the steel to cool in the furnace. The temperature
to which it is heated depends on the carbon content.
• Carbon content < 0.9% - should be heated slowly to just above their Upper Critical
Point {UCP}
• Carbon content > 0.9% - should be heated slowly to a temperature within their
Critical Range {CR}

2. NORMALISING
• A process needed to refine the gain structure of steel after it has been subjected to
prolonged heating above the Critical Range {CR} and to remove internal stresses
caused by cold working. E.g., forging, bending, rolling, etc.
• Almost similar to annealing except that in normalising no effort is made to soften the
steel for further working.
• Normalising if affected by slowly heating the steel to just above its UPC, allowing it
to cool in still air.

3. HARDENING
• Heat a steel uniformly to a temperature just above the UPC and quench in oil or
water.

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• This quenching will avoid the formed austenite from changing back to its original
composition but, in place of the pearlite, a new extremely hard and brittle constituent
if formed termed martensite.
• The martensite makes the steel extremely hard
All mild steels {Carbon content < 0.3%} cannot be hardened this way because the
small amount of carbon in them produces too little martensite to have any great
hardening effects.
• Water cooling produces a dead hard steel but is able to cause cracks a distortion.
• Oil cooling produces a slightly softer steel less liable to these defects.

4. TEMPERING
• Heat steel to a temperature below the Lower Critical Point {LCP} {200℃ - 300℃}
and quench in oil.
• The effect is to change some of martensite back to pearlite. The higher the
temperature to which the steel is heated, the softer and less brittle the tempered steel.
This is done to give the hardened steel, soe toughness thereby reducing its brittleness.
It also increases the strength of steel.

5. CASE HARDENING
• Is the hardening of the surface skin of a piece of metal. Carbon steels of carbon
content
< 0.3% can be hardened this way. The core is left tough and ductile while, the
outer case is hard to resist wear. It can be divided into 3 main processes. a)
Carburizing
b) Refining and toughening the core.
c) Hardening and tempering the outer casing
• To perform case hardening, heat steel in a forge to a bright red heat and exit it with a
special carburizing powder. The steel is then returned to the forge and kept at a bright
red heat for a short period to allow the carbon in the compound to penetrate the
surface of the metal. Finally, the steel part is quenched and becomes readily for

6. POINT HARDENING
• Heat about 50mm of the cutting end of the tool to the Critical Temperature. Quench
about 25mm length a bright this length with a piece of coke, firebrick or emery.
Quench again, which correct tempering colour has travelled down.
7. FULL ANNEALING
• Is a process used for quenching hardened steels and consists of heating the metal
above the UCP and then cooled slowly.
• 8. QUENCH TEMPERING
• 9. STRESS RELIEVING

METHODS OF JOINING METALS AND NON METALS

• Welding

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• Riveting
• Bolting
• Soldering
• Brazing
• Screwing
• Clamping
• Nailing
• Bonding
• Fastening

GAS WELDING

Define the term welding

Welding is a fabrication /joining process whereby 2 or more parts are fused/joined together
by means of heat, pressure or both forming a join as the parts cool

COMPONENTS OF OXY-ACETYLENE KIT

• Torch
• Pressure regulators
• Hoses
• An acetylene cylinders
• Oxygen cylinders
• Blowback valves

OXY-ACETYLENE GAS CYLINDERS CONTENT, SIZE AND COLOUR

Content Oxygen Acetylene
Size Big Small
Colour Black Maroon

TYPES OF GAS WELDING FLAMES

Carburizing flame – the amount of acetylene in the flame is higher than the amount of
oxygen
Neutral flame – there is equal amount of oxygen and acetylene gases in the flame Oxidizing
flame – the amount of oxygen coming out of the blow pipe is higher than the amount of
acetylene

SAFETY IN THE USE OF GAS CYLINDERS

Cylinders for compressed gases are not in themselves dangerous. Gas cylinders can be
identified by their shape and colour coding. For example, high pressure cylinders are tall and
narrow. Low pressure cylinders are shorter and are colour-coded. Unlike other flammable
gases, acetylene can only be stored safely if dissolved under pressure in acetone and
absorbed in type of porous concrete which fills the acetylene cylinder. Some of the main
safety precautions that must be observed are:

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• All cylinders must be protected from mechanical damage during storage and use.
• Acetylene cylinders must always be stored and used upright
• Cylinders must be kept cool. On no account should the welding flame, or any other
naked light, be allowed to play on the cylinders or regulators.
• Cylinders must be protected from direct sunlight, wet, and frost on an open site.
• Cylinders must always be stored in well-ventilated surroundings to prevent the
buildup of explosive mixtures of gases should leaks occur.
Keep cylinders free from contamination. Although oxygen is not flammable, an
oxygen-rich atmosphere in the event of leaks can cause the spontaneous combustion
and violent burning of oils and greases together with oily rags and overalls.
• Correct automatic pressure regulators must be fitted to all cylinders prior touse. The
main cylinder valve must always be kept closed when the cylinder is not in use or
whilst changing cylinders or equipment.

TESTING FOR LEAKS

Never search for gas leaks with a flame. Oxygen is odourless and, whilst it does not burn, it
speeds up the combustion process violently. Acetylene has an unmistakeable, strong, garlic
like smell and can be readily ignited by a spark or even a piece of red-hot metal. The correct
procedure for pressure testing is as follows:
• Open the control valves on the torch.
• Release the pressure-adjusting control on the regulators. Open cylinder valves to turn
on the gas.
• Set the working pressure by adjusting the regulator controls.
• Having established the correct pressure for each gas, close the control valves on the
torch.
• The system is now ready for leak testing

FIRE HAZARDS FROM GAS CYLINDERS

To reduce the risk of fire and explosions:
• Do not position gas cylinders and hoses where sparks can fall on them.
• Avoid the use of wooden structures and other combustible materials in the vicinity of
welding operations.
• Keep fire-fighting equipment ready to hand.

EXPLOSION RISKS
Causes;
• Explosions occur as a result of dust, grit, oil or grease getting into the socket of the
cylinder.
• Explosions can also occur when acetylene gas is present in air in any proportions
between 2% and 82%.
• Faulty equipment can also cause a flash back therefore resulting in an explosion.

Prevention
• Use of flash back arrestors \ horse protectors

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• Cracking the cylinder for first time use in order to remove foreign objects or dust.
Regularly cleaning outlet sockets of cylinder valves.

PERSONAL SAFETY WHEN WORKING ON GAS CYLINDERS

HEAD PROTECTION
In the workshop, we are required to wear Hardie hats {Mangongongo} to protect our heads
from falling objects, electric shock or head bumping against stationery objects.
FACE & EYE PROTECTION
For all arc-welding operations it is essential to protect the welder’s head, face and eyes from
ultra-violet radiation, heat (infra-red radiation), spatter and hot slag. So, one is expected to
wear a welding helmet during welding operation. For general operations like grinding,
chipping, cutting, etc, one is expected to put on clear google and dark google for gas welding
\ brazing.

BODY PROTECTION
Our standard clothing Fabrication engineering is a work suit for protection. However, work
suits types differ depending on the nature of business being done. Also, for body protection,
one may need leather aprons
• Acid resistant work suit – for work in acidic or caustic environment
• PVC work suits – suitable for work where there is vapour, moisture, corrosive liquids
or rain.

HAND PROTECTION
• Short leather gloves
• Long sleeved rubber gloves for work with alkaline, acids, oils, greases and solvents.
• Chrome leather gauntlets for welding or for work where there is excessive heat from
Molten metals
• Aluminized gauntlets for work in extreme high temperature

FOOTWEAR PROTECTION
• Gumboots for working in place where there is danger of alkali or acid splash.
• Safety shoes fitted with steel toe cap.
• Clogs shall be worn for work on hot surfaces.
• Legging, spats or anklets shall be worn where there is danger of hot metal splashes.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
• Respirators
• Masks

ARC-EYE
Exposure to welding arc radiation can cause burns similar to sunburn and also cause severe
irritation to your eyes. This condition is known as ‘arc-eye’. The symptoms, which include
watering eyes, headache and partial loss of vision, become apparent four to eight hours after
exposure. If you suffer these symptoms, you should:

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• Wash your eyes using a sterile eye bath and an approved eye lotion.
• Repeat the treatment every four hours.
• Wear dark glasses in brightly lit areas until the symptoms subside.
• Seek medical advice if the symptoms have not cleared up within 36 to 48 hours.

RESEARCH ON ARCH WELDING

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MARKING OUT, MEASUREMENT, FITTING & ASSEMBLY

TERMS USED IN MACHINING
Ovality
It is the amount of out-roundness of a hole or cylindrical part in the typical form of an oval.
Tapper
It indicates conditions in which the diameter, width or thickness of a long narrow structure
gradually becomes smaller toward the tip.
Clearance
It is the distance between the adjacent surfaces of mating parts.
Precision
It is a process that removes excess, raw material from a work-piece, while holding close
tolerance finishes, to create a finished product.
Trueness
It is the closeness of agreement between the average value obtained from a large series of
results of measurements and a true value.
Tolerance
It is the amount of acceptable variance in the dimension of part.
SAFETY ISSUES
PRECAUTION ASSOCIATED WITH HAND TOOLS

Use the correct tool for the correct job.

Eg when using a hammer to chip slag away - use a chipping hammer.
Wear clear glasses when grinding, chipping, drilling, cutting etc
Using a loose hammer, file tang not covered.

PRECAUTION TO OBSERVE WHEN WORKING ON A WORK PIECE

• Use the correct tool for the work
• Do not overload the work bench you are working on
• Know how to switch on and off the machine you are using
• Make sure your work is tightened to the vice
• Know how to switch off the emergency buttons just in case of an emergency

WORKSHOP TOOLS
Measuring Tools in Workshop
a. Calipers

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b. Vernier Calipers
c. Vernier Height Gauge
d. Micrometer
e. Protractor
f. Combination Set
g. Dial Indicator
Marking Out Tools in Workshop
a. Scriber
b. Engineer's Square
c. Spring Dividers
d. Punch
e. Surface Plate
f. Angle Plate
g. Vee Block Hand Tools for Workshop a. Bench Vice
b. Files
c. File Card
d. Hacksaw
e. Hammer Drill and Drilling a. Twist Drill
b. Drill Features
c. Drill Operating Parameters
d. Special Types of Drill
e. Safety and Care on Drilling Reamer and Threading Tools a. Reamer
b. Tap
c. Die
HAND TOOLS - METAL
Why Use Hand Tools?
The term 'Tooling' as applied to the engineering discipline refers to any equipment or
instruments that give helps in the production of a product or any related activities. It ranges
from the most fundamental type of hand tools such as a File to the very complex machine
tools such as a CNC Machining Centre.
Thus, one may ask the question - Why we still have to use hand tools in this modern age
of technologies?

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Yes, it is reasonable to say that the efficiency of any hand processes is low and the outcome
quality depends highly upon the skill of individuals. Perhaps it is fair to consider the
following points before a definite answer is given to the above question: -
1. Accuracy
Although the CNC machine can give a higher degree of dimensional accuracy when
compared with the inconsistent outcome of hand fitting, the extreme high degree of flatness
required for a surface table or a machine slideway is usually obtained by hand scraping only.
2. Flexibility
Hand processes are very flexible and can be carried out at any place where necessary while
machining processes are not. In addition, machining usually require a rigid setting up, while
fitting is simple.
3. Quantity
For large batch size, advanced production machines are commonly employed in order to
maintain the accuracy as well as the efficiency. But for "jobbing type" works, such as the
manufacture of a prototype or the repairing of a single component, it would be uneconomic to
use these advanced machine tools.
Instead, "jobbing type" works are usually produced by conventional machining and followed
by hand fitting where necessary.
4. Final Assembly
In the assembly of precise component parts, no matter how accurate they are being produced,
a skilled fitter is often required to give the necessary "finishing touch" on them to ensure that
everything goes together correctly.
MEASURING TOOLS IN WORKSHOP
Calipers
Calipers are the very simple tools used together with a steel rule for the measurement
or comparison of linear dimensions. An experienced worker can achieve +/-0.05mm in
the measurement. Calipers are classified into two types: -
a) Outside Calipers

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Outside calipers are used for measuring external dimensions such as the length, diameter, or
even the thickness of a solid.
b) Inside Calipers

Inside calipers are used for measuring internal dimensions such as the diameter of a hole, or
the width of a slot etc.

3b. Vernier Calipers

Vernier Calipers are more precise tools capable for measuring external dimensions, internal
dimensions, and depths. Besides the two pairs of measuring jaws and the depth gauge, its
main features also include a main scale and a vernier scale.
The resolution of a vernier scale is determined by the difference on the distance of one
division on the main scale and one division on the vernier as shown in figure 4 below

For example: A vernier scale of length 49mm is divided into 50 equal divisions. That means
ONE division on the vernier represents 49/50=0.98 mm while ONE division on the main
scale represents 1mm. Then, the resolution of the vernier is 1mm - 0.98mm = 0.02mm. c.
Vernier Height Gauge

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A vernier height gauge is used for measuring height of an object or for marking lines onto an
object of given distance from a datum base.

Micrometer
A micrometer is a more precise measuring instrument than the vernier calipers. The accuracy
is come from the fine thread on the screw spindle. The ratchet prevents excess force from
being applied.
Generally, the screw spindle has a pitch of 0.5mm. The thimble is divided into 50 equal
divisions.
Common types of micrometers used in the workshops are: -
a) Outside Micrometer

An outside micrometer (figure 6) is used for measuring external dimensions. The work to be
measured is placed between the anvil and the tip of the spindle.
b) Inside Micrometer
This is similar in structure to an outside micrometer and is used for measuring internal
dimensions.
c) Depth Micrometer

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A depth micrometer (figure 8) is used for measuring the depth of a hole, slot and keyway etc.
A complete set of depth micrometer is equipped with spindles of different lengths, which can
be interchanged to suit different measuring ranges.

Protractor
a) Engineer's Protractor
Engineer's protractor is a general purpose tool used for the measuring / checking of angles
e.g. the angle of drill head, angle of cutting tool, and even for the marking out of angles on a
component part.

b) Vernier Protractor
This is a precision measuring tool that the accuracy of measurement can reach 05 minutes of
an angle through the vernier scale

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Combination Set
Combination set is a set of equipment combining the functions of protractor, engineer square,
steel rule, Centre finder, level rule, and scriber.

Dial Indicator

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The principle of dial indicator (dial gauge) is that the linear mechanical movement of the
stylus is magnified and transferred to the rotation of pointer.
The accuracy of dial indicator can be up to 0.001mm. It is usually used for calibration of
machine.

MARKING OUT TOOLS IN WORKSHOP

Marking out is the preliminary work of providing guidance lines and centres before cutting
and machining. The lines are in 3-D and full-scale. The workpiece can then be cut or
machined to the required shapes and sizes. The common tools used for marking out are as
follow:
Scriber

It is made of hardened tool steel.

Scribers are used in metalworking to mark lines on work pieces prior to manufacturing. They
are used instead of pencils as the marks from pencils can rub off easily. Scribers consist of a
rod of steel that has been sharpened to a point at one or both ends and they are used to draw
shallow scratches on the surfaces of the work pieces.
There are 2 types of scribers 1- One-end scriber 2- Double-end scriber
Marking blue.
Marking blue is a dye used in metalworking to aid in marking out. It is used to paint a metal
object with a very thin layer of dye that can be scratched off using a scribers to show the
bright metal underneath.
The advantages of using the marking blue are:
• The existing scratches are covered with the dye.

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• The new lines have a contrasting background

Engineer's Square

Engineer's square is made of hardened tool steel. It is used for checking the straightness and
the squareness of a workpiece. It can also be used for marking perpendicular lines onto a
workpiece.
Spring Dividers

Spring dividers are made of hardened tool steel. The legs are used for scribing arcs or circles
onto a workpiece.
Punch
The punch is a hard metal rod with a shaped tip at one end and a rounded butt at the other
end, which is usually struck by a hammer.
There are two types of punch namely the Centre Punch and the Dot Punch.
a) Center punch:
The centre punch has a point angle of 90° as shown below

and it is used for making a large indent on a workpiece for drilling. It is used as an aid to
drilling operations. The center punch forms an indent in which the tip of the drill fits.
b) A dot punch or Prick punch
It has a point angle of 60° and it is used for making of small dots on the reference line. It
is used to produce a smaller indentation than a center punch, which acts as a useful datum
(standard) point in layout operations.
Both punches are made of hardened tool steel.

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Surface Plate

Surface plate is made of malleable cast iron. It has been machined and scraped to a high
degree of flatness.
The flat surface is being used as a datum surface for marking out and for measuring purposes.
If it can stand on the floor, it is called surface table.
Maintaining the surface plate
You should
1- Keep the surface in a good condition.
2- Keep the surface lightly oiled to prevent corrosion.
3- Take care when placing marking out tools on the surface.
You should not
1- Place anything on the
surface that would damage
it.
2- Drop tools on the surface. 3-
Hammer on the surface.
Angle Plate

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An angle plate are used for supporting or setting up work vertically, and are provided with
holes and slots through which securing bolts can be located. It is made of cast iron and
ground to a high degree of accuracy.
Vee Block

Vee blocks usually in a couple are made of cast iron or steel in case-hardening. They are
generally used for holding circular workpiece for marking out or machining.
HAND TOOLS FOR WORKSHOP
Bench Vice

A bench vice is the device for holding the workpiece where most hand processes to be carried
out.
The body of the vice is made of cast iron while the two clamping jaws are made of hardened
tool steel. Some bench vice has a swivel base, which can set the workpiece at an angle to the
table. The vice height should be correct ergonomically. Vice clamps, made of copper are
fitted over the vice jaws when holding finished work to avoid damage to the finish surfaces.
Care of Vices
a. Do not direct impact the vice body by the hammer.

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b. Light hammering can be done on and only on the anvil of the vice.
c. To avoid over clamping, the handle of the vice should be tightened by hand only Figure 20.
Bench Vice
Files

Files are the most important hand tools used for the removal of materials. They are made of
hardened high carbon steel with a soft 'tang'. to which a handle can be fixed.
Files are categorised as follows:-
Length - measured from the shoulder to the tip.
Shape - the cross-sectional profile.
Grade - the spacing and pitch of the teeth.
Cut - the patterns of cutting edge.
Save Edge
There are no cutting edges on one side of the hand file. The purposes for the save edge is to
avoid the worker damage the work, when he is filing a shoulder position. Shape of Files

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1. Hand File - The common file used for roughing and finishing. It is a rectangular in
section and parallel in width. It has double cut teeth on two faces, single cut teeth on one
edge, and one save edge. Figure 22a. Hand File
2. Flat File - It is similar to a hand file rectangular in section, tapered slightly in width
and thickness towards the tip. It has Double Cut teeth on two faces and Single Cut teeth on
two sides. Figure 22b. Flat File
3. Half-round File - The section is a chord of a circle with its taper towards the tip. It is
used for forming radii, grooves, etc. and the flat side is used for finishing flat surfaces. Figure
22c.
Half-round File
4. Round File - This is of round section tapering toward the end. It is used for enlarging
holes, producing internal round corners. Usually double cut in the larger sizes, and single cut
for the smaller sizes.
5. Square File - This is square in section, with tapered towards the tip, and usually
double cut on all four faces. It is used for filing rectangular slots or grooves.
6. Three Square File - It is also known as triangular file. This is a triangular in section,
with tapered towards the tip with double cut on both faces. It is used for filing corners or
angles less than 90°
7. Needle Files - Needle files are a set of small files with their shapes made in a way
similar to the large ones. They are generally used for small and delicate works such as the
repair of small instruments.
Grade
This refers to the pitch (spacing) of the teeth that spread throughout the whole length of the
file. Files with a rougher grade of cut give a faster metal removal rate but a poorer surface
finish or the vice versa.
It should be noted that, for the same grade of cut, a longer file would have a coarser pitch
than a shorter one.
The grades are as follows:
Bastard cut - medium teeth for general purposes, especially suitable for mild steel.
Second cut - finer teeth for cutting hard metals.
Smooth cut - fine teeth for finishing.
Three grades of cut are in common use
Cut Pattern
Single Cut - There is only one set of cutting teeth to one edge. It gives a less efficient cutting
but a better finish. It is suitable for the soft metal.
Double Cut - A double cut file has one set of teeth cut at 70 degrees to one edge, and another
set of grooves cut at 45 degrees to the other edge. It is thus more efficient in cutting. It is easy
to clog the teeth when it is work on the soft metal.

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Rasp - Very coarse teeth, like the nail, it is commonly used for the cutting off soft materials
such as rubber, PVC, or wood etc.
Methods of Filing.
Generally speaking, there are three main methods of using a hand-flat file.
Straight Filing:
In straight filing the file is pressed forward approximately at right angles to the length of the
work. On the back stroke, the file should be lifted clear of the work in order not to blunt the
teeth. Straight filing is used on long and narrow piece of work whose width is less than that
of file.
Cross Filing:
In cross-filing the file strokes run alternately from the right and form the right to the left. This
is the commonest Form of filing and the one used for general shaping. In this method the
possibility of rounding is minimized, and the score marks made in the work by the file teeth
and cross-crossed so that the maximum amount of metal is removed. The aim in cross-filing
is always to move the whale of the file surfaces across the whole of the work surface in one
stroke.
Draw Filing : In draw filing the handle of the file is not held Instead , both hands are placed
at right angles holding the file on the job or work while the hands and especially the thumb
grips the file and move it up and down the length of the metal. It does not move much
material, but a smoother cutting action is achieved than with cross or straight filing.
Curve filing: this filing is done on round jobs and the file is moved in circular action.
Safety and Care of Files
Files teeth are brittle and therefore file should be placed properly and should not be stacked
on other tools. New files should never be used on hard materials. E.g. castings or welding.
Some brittle metal, e.g. brass is not readily filed with the worn teeth. A new file should be
used for these purposes and the file must be kept in another stock. Remove the pinning
regularly by a file card/wire brush. Cutting is carried on the forward stroke. It is very danger
to use files without handles.
File Card

When filing the soft metals, the small pieces of metal will tend to clog the teeth. If the file is
not cleaned, this small piece of metal will scratch on the surface of the work. We call it
pinning. This case is frequently appeared when applying a new smooth file on the soft metals.
The pinning can be removed with a File Card, which is a wire brush mounted on a block of
wood. Sweep the file card along the grooves on the file until the pinning is removed.
Hacksaw

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A hacksaw is generally used for cutting a metal into pieces.

It consists of a frame and a saw blade as shown below. It is a "U" shaped steel frame with a
pistol handgrip and a saw blade as shown in figure 24. The frame may be of fixed type to
take only one length of blade, or adjustable to take different blade lengths. It has a wing nut
to adjust the tension of the blade.
Saw Blade
Saw blades are made of high carbon steel, alloy steel or High Speed Steel. They are supplied
according to material, hardening, length and pitch.
1. Hardening - Usually the saw blade is supplied with all hard or flexible grade. The all
hard is very brittle, and it is suitable for the skillful user only. The flexible grade is tough, so
it can twist an angle. It is suitable for cutting a curve or for the beginner to use.
2. Material - Usually the saw blade is supplied with High Carbon Steel (HCS) and High
Speed Steel
(HSS). The HCS will annealed from the heat generated by fraction of cutting. The HCS, saw
blade will lost its hardness when cutting the hard metal. The HSS can keep its hardness
unless improper use.
Pitch
- It is grading according to the number of teeth per 25mm.

Coarse blade (18T) is most suitable for soft material and thick workpiece.
Medium blade (24T) is suitable for steel pipe.
Fine blade (32T) is suitable for the thin metal sheet and thin copper pipe.
For safety, it is advice that to keep at least 3 teeth of the blade, stand on the workpiece.

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Pitches of Saw Blade

4. Length - The length of the blade is determined by the distance between the outside
edges of the holes, which fit over the pegs.
5. Set - The teeth have a "set" to either side alternately, which causes the blade to cut a
slit wider than the thickness of the blade, to prevent jamming.
Safety and Care of Hacksaw
1. The cutting action is carried on the forward action only. So the blade must be mounted
with its teeth pointing forward.
2. Suitable tension should be applied on the blade to avoid breakage or loosen.
3. Change the blade if some teeth are broken.
4. Avoid rapid and erratic strokes of cut.
5. Avoid too much pressure.
6. Workpiece must be hold firmly.
Hammer

The type most commonly used is the ball pein hammer, which has a flat striking face and a
ball-shaped end (call the pein). Hammer heads are made from medium carbon steel. The two
ends must be hardened and tempered, the centre of the head with the eye being left soft. It is
specified according to its weight.
Safety and Care of Hammer
1. The hammer head is firmly fixed to the shaft by a wedge.
2. The striking face of the hammer head does not wear.
MACHINE TOOLS
PRECAUTION ASSOCIATED WITH MACHINE TOOLS
Metal cutting and forming machines are potentially dangerous

• Do not operate a machine unless all the guards and safety devices are in position and
are operating correctly. Guards should only be fitted and adjusted by a qualified
person
• Make sure you understand any special rules and regulations applicable to the
particular machine you are about to use, even if you have been trained on machines in
general.
• Never clean or adjust a machine whilst it is in motion. Stop the machine and isolate it
from the supply.

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• Report any dangerous aspect of the machine you are using, or are about to use,
immediately and do not use it until it has been made safe by a suitably qualify and
authorized person.
A machine may have to be stopped in an emergency. Learn how to make an emergency stop
without having to pause and think about it and without having to search for the emergency
stop switch
DRILL AND DRILLING

Drilling is the process of cutting holes in metals by using a drilling machine. Drills are the
tools used to cut away fine shavings of material as the drill advances in a rotational
motion through the material. Twist Drill

/
The twist drill is made from High Speed Steel, tempered to give maximum hardness
throughout the parallel cutting portion. Flutes are incorporated to carry away the chips of
metal and the outside surface is relieved to produce a cutting edge along the leading side of
each flute.
Drill Features

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The point of the drill is ground to an angle of 59¢X to the centre line to give two equal
cutting edges, and each side is ground back to give " relief " of about 12¢X to each cutting
edge.
It is very important that drill points are central and that the lip angles are equal and that the
cutting edges are unchipped and the clearance angle correct. To obtain this state and ensure
correct angles it is important that drills are ground in a grinding machine.
Drill Operating Parameters
It is essential to select the correct cutting speed and the feed. Followings are the most
common used cutting speed and feed rate.
Cutting Speed
Material Cutting Speed

Special Type of Drill

Counterbore Drill
To form a flat, or cylindrical recess to accommodate the head of the bolt. It is also used to
provide a level base on the rough surfaces for nuts and washers.
Countersink Drill

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To form a conical shaped recess to enable a countersunk screw or bolt to fit flush with the
surface of the work. Safety and Care on Drilling
i. Twist drill must be clamped in the drill chuck tightly ii. The
workpiece to be drilled must be firmly secured by vice, or clamps. iii.
Drill guard must be closed before switch on the machine.
iv. Use the correct drilling speed and apply suitable drilling force. It is advisable to release
the drill occasionally, lift the drill, and clear the hole of cutting.
v. Apply cutting fluid in the cutting except for drilling Cast iron and Brass
vi. Take care, when the drill is nearly penetrated through the workpiece.
vii. The "screw in" action can lift up the workpiece.

Reamer and Threading Tools

Reamer

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Functions of reamer are

1. to control the diameter of a hole
2. to improve the internal surface finish
3. to improve the roundness of the hole
Reamer is made of hardened High Carbon Steel or High Speed Steel. It is classified into hand
reamer and machine reamer.
Hand Reamer
Hand reamer (figure 33) has two types of flutes: -straight and spiral flutes.
The spiral flutes hand reamer has a left hand spiral flutes. The purpose of the design is to
prevent the reamer "screw in" the hole.
Machine Reamer
Machine reamer (figure 34) has a straight shank or taper shank (Morse taper). The taper
shank can fit directly into the spindle of a machine while the straight shank is hold by the
collet.
Figure 35. Machine Reamer
Expanding Reamer/Adjustable Reamer
The cutting diameter can be slightly varied by adjusting an inner taper against the loss cutting
blades as shown in figure 35. This type is used primarily for repetitive work to maintain a
consistent size throughout.
Figure 35. Adjustable Reamer
Safety, Precautions & Operation in Reaming
a. Care the sharp cutting edge especially in handling.
b. The amount of material to be removed by a reamer should be as small as possible,
approximately 2-4% of diameter.
c. Reamer must only be turned in one direction, both cutting and removing the tools,
otherwise the tool may jam.
d. Lubricant oil should be used except when cutting cast iron and brass.
e. Reaming can enlarge the size of hole, but cannot correct the position error in drilling. Tap

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Taps (figure 36) are used to cut the internal screw threads. Taps are made of hardened High
Carbon
Steel or High Speed Steel. The ends of the shank are square to fit a wrench (figure 37).
Usually taps are provided in set of three -- taper, second and plug tap.
1. Taper Tap
The tap is tapered off for a length of 8 to 10 threads and is the first tap to be used in a hole to
start the thread form.
2. Second Tap
The tap is tapered off for a length of 4 to 5 threads to facilitate picking up the threads cut by
the taper tap.
3. Plug Tap
This is fully threaded throughout its length and is called a 'bottoming' tap.
This tap used to cut the bottom of a blind hole.
Figure 37. Tap Wrench
Precautions & operation in tapping
a. The size of the hole is important and the correct drill size should be determined from the
handbook, standard table in the workshop or the recommendation on the shank of the tap.
b. Use taper tap first ensuring that it is kept square with top surface of work
c. Always use the correct size of wrench for the tap in use.
d. Lubricant oil should be used except when cutting cast iron and brass.
e. Use both hands to hold the wrench to maintain even torque.
f. About every half turn reverse action slightly to break the swarf and clear the threads.
g. When the tap reaches the bottom of the blind hole, care must be taken not to force as tap
may break in the hole.

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Die
Dies are used for cutting external threads on round bar or tubes. Dies are made of Hardened
High
Carbon Steel or High Speed Steel.
1. Split Die or Button Die
Split die is held in place in the stock as shown in figure 38. The split permits a small amount
of adjustment in the size of the die by adjusting the screws in the stock. Since split dies cut
their thread complete in one cut, the die thread are tapered and back off for one third of their
length.
Figure 38. Split Die & Stock
2. Die nuts
Die nuts (figure 39) are not capable of any adjustment. They are not usually employed for
cutting threads from the bar, but for rectifying damage to existing threads. They are
externally formed to hexagonal shape for use with a spanner.
Precautions and Operation of Die
a. The diameter of the blank rod must not larger than the outside diameter of thread to be cut.
b. Ensure that the die is set perpendicular to the rod.
c. Lubricant oil should be used except when cutting cast iron and brass.
d. About every half-turn reverse frequently to break the swarf otherwise the thread will tear

Marking out tools

Different Types of Mechanical Measuring Tools:-

Measuring instruments and gauges are used to measure various parameters such as clearance,
diameter, depth, ovality, trueness etc. These are important engineering parameters which
describes the condition of the working machinery.

Popular mechanical gauges and tools used are:

1. Ruler and scales:

They are used to measure lengths and other geometrical parameters. They can be single steel
plate or flexible tape type tool.

2. Calipers:
They are normally of two types- inside and outside caliper. They are used to measure internal
and external size (for e.g. diameter) of an object. It requires external scale to compare the
measured value. Some calipers are provided with measuring scale. Other types are odd leg
and divider caliper.

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3. Venire caliper:
It is a precision tool used to measure a small distance with high accuracy. It has got two
different jaws to measure outside and inside dimension of an object. It can be a scale, dial or
digital type venire caliper.

4. Micrometer:
It is a fine precision tool which is used to measure small distances and is more accurate than
the venire caliper. Another type is a large micrometer caliper which is used to measure large
outside diameter or distance.

5. Feeler gauge:
Feelers gauges are a bunch of fine thickened steel strips with marked thickness which are
used to measure gap width or clearance between surface and bearings.

6. Telescopic feeler gauge:

It is also known as tongue gauge and it consists of long feeler gauge inside a cover with
tongue or curved edge. The long feeler strips protrude out of the cover so that it can be
inserted into remote places where feeler gauge access is not possible.
7. Poker gauge:
This gauge is used to measure propeller stern shaft clearance, also known as propeller wear
down.

8. Bridge gauge:
Bridge gauges are used to measure the amount of wear of Main engine bearing. Normally the
upper bearing keep is removed and clearance is measured with respect to journal. Feeler
gauge can be used to complete the process.

9. Liner measurement tool:

Liner measurement tool is a set of straight assembled rod with marked length in each set. It is
used to measure the wear down or increase in the diameter of the engine liner.

10. American Wire Gauge:

American wire gauge or AWG is a standard tool which is circular in shape and has various
slots of different diameter in its circumference. It is used to measure cross section of an
electric cable or wire.

11. Bore Gauge:

A tool to accurately measure size of any hole is known as bore gauge, it can be a scale, dial or
digital type instrument.

12. Depth gauge:

A depth gauge is used to measure the depth of a slot, hole or any other surface of an object. It
can be of scale, dial or digital type.

13. Angle plate or tool:

It is a right angle plate or tool used to measure the true right angle of two objects joined
together.

14. Flat plate:

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Flat plate is a precisely flat surface used to measure flatness of an object when it is kept over
the flat plate.

15. Dial Gauge:

Dial gauge is utilized in different tools as stated above and can be separately used to measure
the trueness of the circular object, jumping of an object etc.

16. Lead Wire:

It is a conventional method to used soft lead wire or lead balls to measure the wear down or
clearance between two mating surfaces. The lead wire or balls of fixed dimension is kept
between two surfaces and both are tightened against each just as in normal condition. The
increase in the width of the lead wire or ball will show the clearance or wear down.

REFER TO THE SYLLABUS FOR GAP FILLING

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