18.
1 Components of Runoff
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from
a catchment area through a surface channel enters into a stream
channel. It represents the output from catchment in a given unit
of time. Fig. 18.1 shows components of runoff.
Fig. [Link] of runoff.(Source: Subramanya, 2008)
Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. For a given
precipitation, when the evapotranspiration, initial loss,
infiltration and detention storage requirements are satisfied, the
excess precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach
smaller channels. This portion of runoff is called overland flow
and involves building up of storage over the surface and
draining off the [Link] from several small channels join
bigger channels and flows from these in turn combine to form
a larger stream, and so on, till the flow reaches the catchment
outlet. The flow in this mode, where it travels all the time over
the surface as overland flow and through the channels as open-
channel flow and reaches the catchment outlet is called surface
runoff.
A part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally through
upper crusts of the soil and returns to the surface at some
locations away from the point of entry into the soil. This
component of runoff is known variously as interflow, through
flow, storm seepage, subsurface flow or quick return flow.
Depending upon the time delay between the infiltration and the
outflow, the interflow is sometimes classified into prompt
interflow, i.e. the interflow with the least time lag and delayed
interflow.
Another route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep
percolation and reach the groundwater storage. The time lag,
i.e. the difference in time between the entry into the soil and
outflows from it is very large, being of the order of months and
years. This part of runoff is called groundwater runoff or
groundwater flow.
Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the
runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories; as (a) Direct
runoff (b) Base flow.
a) Direct runoff
It is the part of runoff which enters the stream immediately
after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow
and rainfall on the surface of the stream. In the case of snow-
melt, the resulting flow entering the stream is also a direct
runoff. Direct storm runoff and storm runoff are also used to
designate direct runoff.
b) Base flow
The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as
groundwater flow is called base flow.
18.2 Factors Affecting Runoff
The main factors affecting the runoff from a catchment area
are:
a) Precipitation characteristics
b) Shape and size of catchment
c) Topography
d) Geologic characteristics
e) Meteorological characteristics
f) Storage characteristics of a catchment
18.2.1Precipitation Characteristics
Precipitation is the most important factor, which affects
runoff. The important characteristics of precipitation are
duration, intensity and areal distribution.
Duration Total runoff depends on the duration of
rainstorm. For a given rainfall intensity and other conditions,
a longer duration rainfall event will result in more runoff.
Intensity Rainfall intensity influences both rate and volume of
runoff. The runoff volume and also runoff rate will be greater
for an intense rainfall event than for less intense event.
Areal Distribution It also influences both the rate and volume
of runoff. Generally, the maximum rate and volume of runoff
occurs when the entire watershed contributes.
18.2.2 Shape and Size of Catchment
The runoff from a catchment depends upon the size, shape and
location of the catchment. The following are the general
observations:
a) More intense rainfall events are generally distributed over a
relatively smaller area, i.e., larger the area lower will be the
intensity of rainfall.
b) The peak normally decreases as the area of the basin
increase. (peak flow per unit area)
c) Larger basins give a more constant minimum flow than the
smaller ones. (effect of local rains and greater capacity of the
ground-water reservoir)
d) Fan shaped catchments give greater runoff because
tributaries are nearly of same size and hence time of
concentration of runoff is nearly same. On the contrary,
discharges over fern leaf arrangement of tributaries are
distributed over long period because of the different lengths of
tributaries.
Fig. [Link] shaped catchment. Fig. [Link] shaped
catchment.(Source: Subramanya, 2008)
18.2.3 Topography
The runoff depends upon surface condition, slope and land
features. Runoff will be more from a smooth surface than from
rugged surface. Also, if the surface slope is steep, water will
flow quickly and adsorption and evaporation losses will be less,
resulting in greater runoff. On the other hand if the catchment
is mountainous, the rainfall intensity will be high and hence
runoff will be more.
18.2.4 Geologic Characteristics
Geologic characteristics include surface and sub-surface soil
type, rocks and their permeability. Geologic characteristics
influence infiltration and percolation rates. The runoff will be
more for low infiltration capacity soil (clay) than for high
infiltration capacity soil (sand).
18.2.5 Meteorological Characteristics
Temperature, wind speed, and humidity are the major
meteorological factors, which affect runoff. Temperature,
wind speed and humidity affect evaporation and transpiration
rates, thus soil moisture regime and infiltration rate, and finally
runoff volume.
18.2.6 Storage Characteristics of a Catchment
Presence of artificial storage such as dams, weirs etc. and
natural storage such as lakes and ponds etc. tend to reduce the
peak flow. These structures also give rise to greater
evaporation.