Introduction to
Organic Chemistry
Types of chemical reactions
1- Substitution reaction
Is a chemical reaction during which one functional group in
a chemical compound is replaced by another functional
group. Substitution reactions are of prime importance in organic
chemistry. Substitution reactions in organic chemistry are
classified either as electrophilic or nucleophilic depending
upon the reagent involved
2- Addition Reactions
Is a reaction in which atoms or groups are attached to the
molecule without displacement of any other atoms or
groups. Only unsaturated compounds give addition
reaction
3- Elimination Reactions
Is a reaction in which atoms or groups are detached from the
molecule without displacement of any other atoms or groups. This
reaction is reverse of addition reaction
Chemical formula in organic chemistry
Lewis formulas are useful for keeping tack of bonding electrons, but
organic chemists rarely use true Lewis formulas. Let us consider the
types of chemical formulas that are more frequently encountered.
1- An empirical formula tells us the types of atoms and their numerical
ratio in a molecule. For example, a molecule of ethane contains carbon
and hydrogen atoms in a ratio of 1 : 3; the empirical formula is CH3.
2- A molecular formula tells us the actual number of each type of atom
in a molecule, not the ratio. The molecular formula for ethane is C2H6.
3- A structural formula shows the structure of a molecule, that is the
order of attachment of the atoms. In order to explain or predict the
chemical reactivity, we need to know the structure of a molecule.
Therefore, structural formulas are the most useful of the different types
of formulas.
H H
H C C H
CH3 C2H6
H H
empirical formula molecular formula structural formula
(for ethane)
How To Write and Interpret
Structural Formulas
The structure of a molecule
(order of attachment of the atoms)
Ball-and-stick model Dash formula
Electron-dot formula
Condensed formula Bond-line formula
Types of bond fission (dissociation)
The breaking of a simple covalent bond can take
place in two different ways
1- Heterolysis (Heterolytic Fission):
In this type of fission the bond is broken
unsymmertically, i.e. the two electrons are
retained by one atom. Such fissure results in the
formation of ions.
A: +B
A : B
A + :B
2- Homolysis (Homolytic Fission):
This type involves the symmetrical breaking of the
shared electron pair, one electron being retained
by each atom.
hemolytic or free radical reactions
A:B A. + B.
Depending on the electronegativity of the atom attached
to carbon in comparing with carbon
Types of Reagents
1) Nucleophiles or nucleophilic reagents (electron
donors): are nucleus loving reagents which in a reaction
donate electrons to share by its with the center attached
N: + R :X R: N + :X
A- Negatively charged anions as OH-, CN-, RO-
OH + R X R OH + X
B- Neutral molecules having lone pair of electrons
R3N: H3N: H2O: R2O: R2S :
2) Electrophiles or Electrophilic reagents (electron
acceptors):
electron loving reagents
• Positively charged cations
Such as, H+, NO2+, X+, CH3+
• Neutral molecules (electron deficient)
Such as FeCl3, AlCl3, C=O,
Families of Organic
Compounds
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Functional Groups in Biologically
Important Compounds
Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department
Pharm. Org. Chem. I (PC 102/102C)
Lecture 3
Hydrocarbon Compounds
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Compounds that contain only CARBON and •
HYDROGEN are called HYDROCARBONS.
ALKANES are hydrocarbons that do not have •
multiple bonds between carbon atoms (i.e. contain only
SINGLE BONDS).
Alkanes, are referred to as SATURATED •
COMPOUNDS because they contain the maximum
number of hydrogen atoms that the carbon atom can
possess (c.f. alkene, alkynes, and aromatic
hydrocarbons). 17
Shapes of Alkanes
Generally, alkanes have 2 Shapes: straight-chain •
(unbranched chain) and branched chain shapes.
Straight-chain Alkanes
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Branched chain Alkanes
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Hybrid orbitals
are mixed orbitals—they result from combining
orbitals. The concept of combining orbitals is
called orbital hybridization. If the one s and
three p orbitals of the second shell are
combined and then apportioned into four equal
orbitals, each of the four resulting orbitals will
be one part s and three parts p. This type of
mixed orbital is called an (stated “s-p-three” not
“s-p-cubed”) orbital. The superscript 3 means
that three p orbitals were mixed with one s
orbital to form the hybrid orbitals. Each orbital
has 25% s character and 75% p character. 20
The superscript 3 means that three p orbitals were mixed
with one s orbital to form the hybrid orbitals. Each orbital
has 25% s character and 75% p character. The four orbitals
are degenerate—they have the same energy. The four
orbitals arrange themselves in space in a way that allows
them to get as far away from each other as possible. This
occurs because electrons repel each other and getting as far
from each other as possible minimizes the repulsion. When
four orbitals spread themselves into space as far from each
other as possible, they point toward the corners of a regular
tetrahedron (a pyramid with four faces, each an equilateral
triangle). Each of the four bonds in methane is formed from
overlap of an orbital of carbon with the s orbital of a hydrogen
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