Open Channel Hydraulics

Lectures
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Open channel hydraulics

References:
- Open Channel Hydraulics , by V.T Chow.
- Civil Engineering Hydraulics, by Hinderson
- Open Channel Hydraulics, by R. E. Featherstone and C. Nalluri.
- Open Channel Hydraulics ,by Richard, H. French.
- Open Channel Hydraulics ,by Terry W. Sturm.

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Open Channel Flow and its Classifications

Introduction
A passage through which water flows with its free surface in contact with
the atmosphere is known as “Open Channel”. The water therefore runs under the
atmospheric pressure throughout the open channel open at the top.
Classification of Channels
Open channel may be classified as described below:
a- Channel of regular section or irregular section.
The rectangular, trapezoidal, circular or semicircular section are examples of
channels of regular section. The example of channels of irregular section are
stream or rivers.
b- Natural or artificial channel
Open channel may be either natural or artificial. Streams or rivers are example of
natural channels. Artificial channel are man-made.
c- Prismatic or non- prismatic channels
In prismatic channels, the cross-section and slope remain uniform throughout its
length. Artificial channels are prismatic channels. The bed slope and cross section
of non-prismatic channels do not remain uniform throughout the length. Natural
channels are non-prismatic channels.

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Classification of Flow
The flow through the channel may be classified in different types as in the case of
the pipe flow:
a- Uniform Flow
The flow is to be uniform when the velocity of the flow dose note change both in
magnitude and direction from one section to another in part of channel of uniform
cross-section. The Depth of flow must also remain constant throughout its length
for uniform flow.
b- Non-Uniform Flow
A flow is said to be non-uniform when the velocity and depth of flow varies from
one section to another.
c- Steady flow
A flow with constant rate of discharge is known as steady flow. Also, steady flow
defined as the flow where the characteristics at a point are not change with time.
d- Unsteady Flow
A flow in which the rate of discharge dose not remain constant.
e- Gradually Varied Flow
When the change in depth of flow is gradual, the flow is said gradually varied
flow.
f- Rapidly Varied Flow
If the change in the depth of flow is abrupt and the transition is conferred to short
length only. It is said to be rabidly varied flow.

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Chezy's Formula for Uniform Flow

Assuming a section of length L between section (1-1) and section (2-2) moving
along the channel as shown in the figure. The water body (abcd) is subjected to the
following forces:
- Hydrostatic force (F1) upstream end of the body.
- Hydrostatic force (F2) downstream end of the body.
- Weight of water body (W)
- Frictional resistance force (τ*PL)
Since the water through the channel flows with uniform velocity, therefore the net
accelerating or retarding force is equal to zero.
Hence:-
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜏 × 𝑃𝐿 = 0 …………………………………………….(1)
F1= F2 (Because the depth of the flow is constant)
𝑊 = 𝐴 × 𝐿 × 𝛾 = 𝐴𝐿 × 𝜌𝑔
𝑣2
𝜏0 = 𝐶𝑓 × 𝜌 ×
2

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ℎ𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = = 𝑆0
𝐿
Substituting values of W and τ in the equation (1)
1
𝐴𝐿𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝐶𝑓 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑃𝐿 = 0
2
2𝐴𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑔 𝐴
𝑣2 = = × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐶𝑓 𝑃 𝐶𝑓 𝑃

𝐴
= 𝑅ℎ
𝑃
2𝑔
=𝐶
𝐶𝑓

𝑣 = 𝐶 √𝑅 × 𝑆0 ……………………………………………. Chezy Equation

𝑄 =𝐴×𝑣

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆0

Where:
Q=Discharge
A=Cross section area
C= Chezy Coefficient
Rh= Hydraulic radius
S0= Longitudinal Slope

Example: A trapezoidal channel has base width of 2m and side slope of 1 horizontal
to 2 vertical. The depth of flow in the
channel is 1.33m. Find Chezy constant if the
discharge through this channel is 7200
liter/sec and the longitudinal slope of this
channel is 1 to 530.

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Sol. :
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑧𝑦 2
𝐴 = 2(1.33) + 0.5(1.33)2 = 3.544 𝑚2

𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑧 2
𝑃 = 2 + 2(1.33)√1 + (0.5)2 = 4.98 𝑚
𝐴 3.544
𝑅ℎ = = = 0.713𝑚
𝑃 4.98
7200 𝑚3
𝑄= = 7.2
1000 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆0

1
7.2 = 𝐶(3.544)√(0.713) ( )
530

𝐶 =55.3

Example: The discharge through a semi-circular open channel is 10m3/sec. The bed
slope is (1 to 1650) and the channel is running full. Find the diameter of this channel
if the Chezy coefficient (C) is 70.
Sol.:
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆0
𝜋𝑅 2
𝐴= , 𝑃 = 𝜋𝑅
2

0.5𝜋𝑅2 𝑅
𝑅ℎ = =
𝜋𝑅 2

𝜋𝑅2 𝑅 1
10 = 70( )√( )( )
2 2 1650
5 10
𝑅2 =
35𝜋(0.017)

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𝑅 = 1.95𝑚
𝐷 = 2 × 1.95 = 3.9𝑚

The Manning’s Formula

One of the best as well as one of the most widely used formula for uniform flow
in open channels is that published by the Irish engineer (Robert Manning). Manning
found from many tests, that the value of (C) in the Chezy formula varied
approximately as (R1/6), so he proposed the following relation:
1 1
𝐶 = 𝑅ℎ 6
𝑛
Where n is constant and depends on the channel material. Now, Substituting the
value of C in the following equation:-

𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑅ℎ 𝑆0
1 1
𝑉= 𝑅ℎ 6 √𝑅ℎ 𝑆0
𝑛
2 1
1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅ℎ 3 𝑆0 2 ------------------ In SI Units System (m , kg,…).
𝑛
2 1
1.49
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅ℎ 3 𝑆0 2 ------------------- In UK Units System (ft, Ib,….).
𝑛

Example: An open channel of trapezoidal section has side slope of 2 horizontal to

1 vertical and carries water of rate equal to 15 m3/sec. The bed slope of the channel
is 0.5 per one kilometer and depth of flow is 2m.
a- Find the bed width of channel assuming
n =0.018.
b- If the channel at the above cross section
is used to discharge 6 m3/sec of water at
the velocity of 0.5 m/sec and the depth
of flow being 2m. Determine the bed
width and bed slope of the channel.

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Sol.:
0.5
a- Q=15 m3/sec, 𝑆 = = 0.0005
1000

1 2 1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2
𝐴 = 2𝐵 + (2)(2)2 = 2𝐵 + 8

P= 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2

P= 𝐵 + 2(2)√1 + (2)2 = 𝐵 + 4√5

𝐴 2𝐵 + 8
𝑅= =
𝑃 𝐵 + 4√5
1 2𝐵 + 8 2 1
15 = (2𝐵 + 8)( )3 (0.0005)2
0.018 𝐵 + 4√5
5
15 × 0.018 (2𝐵 + 8 )3
1 = 2
(0.0005)2 (𝐵 + 4√5 )3
𝐵 = 1.75 𝑚
b- Q= 6 m3/sec, V=0.5 m/sec, y=2m, n=0.018, z=2, S=?

𝑄 6
𝐴= = = 12 𝑚2
𝑣 0.5
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2
12 = 2𝐵 + 2(2)2 = 2𝐵 + 8
𝐵 =2𝑚
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
P= 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2

P= 2 + 2(2)√1 + (2)2 = 10.94 𝑚

𝐴 12
𝑅= = = 1.096 𝑚
𝑃 10.94

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1 2 1
6= 12 × (1.096)3 𝑆 2
0.018
𝑆 = 0.0000715

Example: A circular Sewage of 1 m radius has longitudinal slope of (1 to 250) .find

the discharge though the sewage if depth of flow is 700 mm assuming (n) equal to
0.015
Sol.:
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
2𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 ×
360
ℎ
cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑟 =𝑑+ℎ
ℎ = 𝑟 − 𝑑 = 1 − 0.7 = 0.3 𝑚
0.3
cos 𝜃 = , 𝜃 = 72.54°
1
𝑥
sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑥
Sin(72.54) = , 𝑥 = 0.95 𝑚
1
2𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ×
360
2(72.54)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜋(1)2 × = 1.266 𝑚2
360
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = × 2𝑥 × ℎ
2
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = × 2(0.95) × (0.3) = 0.285 𝑚2
2

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𝐴 = 1.266 − 0.285 = 0.981 𝑚2

2𝜃
𝑃 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 ×
360
(72.54)
𝑃 = 2𝜋(1) × = 2.53 𝑚
180
𝐴 0.981
𝑅= = = 0.387𝑚
𝑃 2.53
1 2 1 1
𝑄= (0.981) (0.387)3 ( )2
0.015 250
𝑄 = 2.196 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

Example: Use the Same data of the previous example with depth of flow (y) equal
to 1.4 m. find the discharge?
Sol.:
2 1
1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛

ℎ
cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
ℎ = 𝑑 − 𝑟 = 1.4 − 1 = 0.4 𝑚
0.4
cos 𝜃 = , 𝜃 = 66°
1
𝑥
sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑥
Sin(66) = , 𝑥 = 0.91 𝑚
1
2𝜃 = 2 × 66 = 132
2𝛼 = 360 − 2𝜃 = 360 − 132 = 228°
Method 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(2𝜃) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

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2𝜃 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝜋𝑟 2 × + × 2𝑥 × ℎ
360 2
132 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜋(1)2 − 𝜋(1)2 × + × 2(0.91) × (0.4) = 2.35 𝑚2
360 2
Method 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(2𝛼) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
2𝛼 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × + × 2𝑥 × ℎ
360 2
228 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜋(1)2 × + × 2(0.91) × 0.4 = 2.35 𝑚2
360 2
Method 1
𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(2𝜃)
2𝜃 132
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟 − 2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋(1) − 2𝜋(1) = 3.97 𝑚
360 360
Method 2
𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(2𝛼)
2𝛼 228
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋(1) = 3.97 𝑚
360 360
𝐴 2.35
𝑅= = = 0.59 𝑚
𝑃 3.97
1 2 1 1
𝑄= (2.35) (0.59)3 ( )2
0.015 250
𝑄 = 6.97 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Condition of the Most Economical Cross Section

The main purpose of channel is to transport water therefore the cross section
of any geometrical shape channel which gives maximum discharge is known as most
economical cross section.
In other words the channel of most efficient cross section needs minimum of
excavation work for the given discharge through the channel is given by:

2 1
1
𝑄 =𝐴×𝑣 and 𝑣= 𝑅ℎ 3 𝑆 2
𝑛

For a given value of roughness factor (n); area of flow (A) and the hydraulic
slope (S) the discharge is maximum if the hydraulic radius (Rh) is maximum but
since:-
𝐴
𝑅ℎ =
𝑃
Hence , Rh is maximum if wetted perimeter (P) is minimum.

Condition of the Most Economical Rectangular Section

Consider a channel of rectangular section as shown the figure:

B= bed width
y= Depth of flow

𝐴=𝐵×𝑦
𝐴
𝐵=
𝑦
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦
𝐴
𝑃 = + 2𝑦
𝑦
𝑑𝑃 −𝐴
= 2 +2=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝐴 = 2𝑦 2
𝐵 × 𝑦 = 2𝑦 2
𝐵 = 2𝑦

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This is the width of channel should be twice water depth for maximum discharge.
That is mean the most economical rectangular section is one half of square.
𝐴 𝐵. 𝑦
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑃 𝐵 + 2𝑦
2𝑦. 𝑦 2𝑦 2
𝑅ℎ = =
2𝑦 + 2𝑦 4𝑦
𝑦
𝑅ℎ =
2

Example: find the discharge and best properties for a rectangular channel having
cross section area 4.5 m2 the bed slope is 0.001 and n is 0.013.
Sol.:
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅ℎ 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑦
𝑦
𝑅ℎ =
2
4.5 = 2𝑦. 𝑦
4.5
𝑦2 = = 2.25 𝑚
2
𝑦 = 1.5 𝑚
𝐵 = 2𝑦 = 2(1.5) = 3 𝑚
2
1 1.5 3 1 𝑚2
𝑄= (4.5) ( ) (0.001) = 9.03
2
0.013 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Example: find the best properties for rectangular channel to carry 1.5 m3/sec of
water when the bed slope is (1to 3000) taken n equal to 0.015?
Sol.:
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅ℎ 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑦 = 2𝑦 2
2 1
1 𝑦 3 1 2
1.5 = (2𝑦 2 ) ( ) ( )
0.015 2 3000

𝑦 = 0.92 𝑚 , 𝐵 = 2(0.92) = 1.84 𝑚

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Condition of the Most Economical Trapezoidal Section

Consider a channel of trapezoidal section as shown the figure:

𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2
𝐴
𝐵 = − 𝑍𝑦
𝑦
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2
𝐴
𝑃 = − 𝑍𝑦 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝑑𝑃 −𝐴
= 2 − 𝑍 + 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝐴
∴ 2 + 𝑍 = 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2
2
+ 𝑍 = 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝑦(𝐵 + 𝑍𝑦)
+ 𝑍 = 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦2
(𝐵 + 𝑍𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦)
= 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
(𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦)
= 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝐴 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2 𝑦(𝐵 + 𝑍𝑦)
𝑅ℎ = = =
𝑃 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2 𝐵 + (𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦)
𝑦(𝐵 + 𝑍𝑦)
=
2𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦
𝑦(𝐵 + 𝑍𝑦)
𝑅ℎ =
2(𝐵 + 𝑍𝑦)

𝑦
∴ 𝑅ℎ =
2

The most economical trapezoidal section is one half of hexagon , 𝜃 = 60°

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Example: find the width of the best efficient channel if it has side slope and bed
slope (1:1) and (1 to 1000) respectively the discharge is 15 m3/sec and Chezy
coefficient C=60?

Sol.:
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆0
𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦
= 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝐵 = 2√2𝑦 − 2𝑦 , 𝐵 = 0.828𝑦

𝑦 1
15 = 60(𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2 )√ ×
2 1000

15 𝑦 1
= (0.828𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2 )√ ×
60 2 1000

0.25 5
= 1.828𝑦 2
√0.0005
5
11.18 = 1.828𝑦 2
𝑦 = 2.064 𝑚
𝐵 = 0.828(2.064) = 1.71 𝑚

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Example: A trapezoidal channel having side slope equal to 50° with the horizontal
as shown in the figure and laid on a slope of (1to 1000) the cross section area of the
channel is 2 m2 .find the discharge of this channel for the most economical cross
section? Use C=66

Sol:
1
tan 50° =
𝑍
𝑍 = 0.839
𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦
= 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝐵 = 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2 − 2𝑍𝑦

𝐵 = 2𝑦√1 + (0.839)2 − 2(0.839)𝑦

𝐵 = 0.932𝑦 ----------------------------------(1)

𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2

2 = (0.932𝑦)𝑦 + (0.839)𝑦 2
𝑦 = 1.0627 𝑚

𝐵 = 0.932(1.0627) = 0.99 𝑚

𝑦 1.0627
𝑅ℎ = = = 0.531𝑚
2 2

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑜
1
𝑄 = 66 × 2√(0531)( )
1000
𝑄 = 3.043 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

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16
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Example: A trapezoidal channel having side slope equal to 60° with the horizontal
as shown in the figure and laid on a slope of (1to 750) carries discharge of 10 m3/sec.
find the width of the base and depth of flow for the most economical section, Take
C=66.

Sol.:

1
tan 60° =
𝑍
𝑍 = 0.5774
𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦
= 2 √1 + 𝑍 2
𝑦
𝐵 = 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2 − 2𝑍𝑦
𝐵 = 2𝑦√1 + (0.5774)2 − 2(0.5774)𝑦
𝐵 = 1.155𝑦 ----------------------------------(1)

𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2
𝐴 = (1.155𝑦)𝑦 + (0.577)𝑦 2
𝐴 = 1.7325𝑦 2 ----------------------------------(2)

𝑦
𝑅ℎ =
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑜
𝑦 1
10 = 66 × (1.7325𝑦 2 ) √( )( )
2 750
𝑦 = 1.625 𝑚
𝐵 = 1.155𝑦
𝐵 = 1.155(1.625) = 1.876 𝑚

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17
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Example: A trapezoidal channel having side slope (1:1) it is required to discharge

13.75 m3/sec of water with a bed slope (1 to 1000). If this channel is unlined and the
value of C=44 and when this channel is lined with concrete the value C=60. The cost
per cubic meter of excavation is four times the cost per square meter of lining. The
channel is to be the most efficient one find whether the lined channel or the unlined
channel will be cheaper. What will be the dimensions of the economical channel?

Sol.:
1- When the channel is unlined for most economical section.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑜
𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦 = 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2
𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑦√2
𝐵 = 0.828𝑦
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2
𝐴 = (0.828𝑦)𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 1.828𝑦2
𝑦
𝑅ℎ =
2
𝑦 1
13.75 = 44 × (1.828𝑦 2 ) √( )( )
2 1000
𝑦 = 2.256 𝑚
𝐵 = 0.828(2.256) = 1.876 𝑚
𝐴 = 1.828(2.256)2 = 9.303 𝑚2

Let the cost of lining of square meters of concrete =x

Cost of excavation per m3= 4 x
The cost of excavation per (1m) length of channel = volume of excavation =4x.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 1 × 4𝑥 = 9.303 × 1 × 4𝑥 = 37.212𝑥

2-When the channel is lined

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑜
𝑦 1
13.75 = 60 × (1.828𝑦 2 ) √( )( )
2 1000
𝑦 = 1.993 𝑚
𝐵 = 0.828(1.993 ) = 1.65 𝑚

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Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

𝐴 = 1.828(1.993)2 = 7.26 𝑚2

The cost of lined channel = cost of excavation + cost of lining

(𝐴 × 1 × 4𝑥) + (𝑃 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑥)
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑍 2
𝑃 = 1.65 + 2(1.993)√1 + 1
𝑃 = 7.287 𝑚
(7.26 ∗ 1 ∗ 4𝑥) + (7.287 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑥) = 36.327 𝑥
The lined channel is cheaper

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19
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Example: A Circular channel of 1.2 m diameter is laid on a slope 1to 1500. Find the
discharge through the channel when velocity of flow is maximum . Take n=0.015
Sol.:
For maximum velocity, y=0.81 D
𝑦 = 0.81(1.2) = 0.972 𝑚
ℎ =𝑦−𝑟
ℎ = 0.972 − 0.6 = 0.372 𝑚
ℎ
cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
0.372
cos 𝜃 = = 0.62 , 𝜃 = 51.68°
0.6
𝑥
sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑥
sin 51.68 = , 𝑥 = 0.47
0.6
2𝜃 = 2 × 51.68 = 103.36°
2𝛼 = 360 − 103.36 = 256.64°
Area= Area of sector + Area of triangle
2𝛼 1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝑥 × ℎ
360 2
256.64
= 𝜋(0.6)2 + 0.47 × 0.372
360
= 0.806 + 0.175 = 0.98 𝑚2

𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

2𝛼
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟
360
256.64
𝑃 = 2𝜋(0.6)
360
𝑃 = 2.69 𝑚
𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃
0.98
𝑅= = 0.36 𝑚
2.69
1 2 1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
1 2 1 1
𝑄= (0.98)(0.36)3 ( )2
0.015 1500
𝑄 = 0.853 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Example: A Circular channel of 1.5 m diameter is laid on a slope 1to 1000. Find the
maximum discharge through this channel. Assume C=55

Sol.:
For maximum discharge, y=0.95 D
𝑦 = 0.95(1.5) = 1.425 𝑚
ℎ =𝑦−𝑟
ℎ = 1.425 − 0.75 = 0.675 𝑚
ℎ
cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
0.675
cos 𝜃 = = 0.62 , 𝜃 = 25.84°
0.75
𝑥
sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑥
sin 25.84 = , 𝑥 = 0.33 𝑚
0.75
2𝜃 = 2 × 25.84 = 51.68°
2𝛼 = 360 − 51.68 = 308.32°
Area= Area of sector + Area of triangle
2𝛼 1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝑥 × ℎ
360 2
308.32
= 𝜋(0.75)2 + 0.33 × 0.675
360
= 1.513 + 0.223 = 1.736 𝑚2

𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

2𝛼
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟
360
308.32
𝑃 = 2𝜋(0.75)
360
𝑃 = 4.036 𝑚
𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃
1.736
𝑅= = 0.43 𝑚
4.036
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅 𝑆
1
𝑄 = 55 × 1.736√(0.43) ( )
1000
𝑄 = 1.975 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

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21
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Non-Uniform Flow in Open Channel

If change in channel cross section or channel discharge or depth of flow in any

section, the flow is said non-uniform flow.

Energy of flowing liquid in open channel

The Bernoulli’s Equation

𝑃 𝑣2
+ + 𝑍 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔

The equation is also applicable in open channel flow:-

𝑃
= y cos 𝜃 ,𝜃 ≈ 0 , cos 𝜃 ≈ 1
𝛾

𝑃
=𝑦
𝛾
𝑣2
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑦 + +𝑍
2𝑔

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22
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Specific Energy of Channels

The fact that the bed of the channel may not be exactly horizontal. But 𝜃 = 0

Then taking the bed channel as a datum, therefore

𝑍=0
𝑣2
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝐸) = 𝑦 +
2𝑔
𝑄 𝑞∗𝐵 𝑞
For rectangular channel, 𝑣 = = =
𝐴 𝑦∗𝐵 𝑦

1 𝑞 2
∴𝐸 = 𝑦+ ( )
2𝑔 𝑦

Example: A rectangular channel 4 m wide is discharging water at rate of 12 m3/sec.

Find specific energy of water if the depth of flow is 2 m.
Sol.:

Method 1
𝑣2
𝐸 = 𝑦+ +𝑍
2𝑔
𝑄 12
𝑣= = = 1.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 4×2
(1.5)2
∴𝐸 = 2+ = 2.114 𝑚
2 × 9.81

Method 2
1 𝑞 2
𝐸 = 𝑦+ ( )
2𝑔 𝑦
𝑄 12
𝑄 = 𝑞 × 𝐵 ,𝑞 = = = 3 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐵 4
1 3
𝐸 = 2+ ( )2 = 2.114 𝑚
2(9.81) 2

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23
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Specific Energy and Alternate Depths of Flow in Rectangular

Channel
𝑣2 1 𝑞 2
𝐸 = 𝑦+ =𝑦+ ( )
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑦
1 𝑞2
𝐸−𝑦= ∗
2𝑔 𝑦2
𝑞2
2
(𝐸 − 𝑦)𝑦 =
2𝑔

1-A Plot of E with respect to y for constant q gives a specific energy discharge as
shown in the figure:

2- Each different value of q will gives a different curve.

3- Each value of E gives two values possible different values of y these two values
known alternate depths.
4- The two alternate depths represent two locally different flow, slow and deep in
the upper limb of the curve and fast and low in the lower limb of the curve.
5- The upper limb represent the subcritical flow and the lower limb represent the
supercritical flow.
𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐹𝑟 = 1 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑣
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦

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Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

6- At point C for a given q, the value of E is minimum and the flow at this point
referred to as critical flow. The depth of flow at that point is critical flow (yc)
and the velocity is critical velocity (vc)
7- A relation for critical in wide rectangular channel can be found by differentiating
E of equation with respect to y:-
1 𝑞2
𝐸=𝑦+ ∗
2𝑔 𝑦 2
𝑑𝐸 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2
=1− 3 , 0= 1− 3 , 1= 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑦
2 3
𝑞 = 𝑔𝑦
𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑞 ∗ 𝐵 = 𝑣𝑐 (𝑦𝑐 ∗ 𝐵)
𝑞
𝑣𝑐 = , 𝑞 = 𝑣𝑐 ∗ 𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐
𝑞 2 = 𝑣𝑐 2 ∗ 𝑦𝑐 2
𝑔𝑦𝑐 3 = 𝑣𝑐 2 ∗ 𝑦𝑐 2
𝑣𝑐 2 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐
𝑣𝑐 = √𝑔𝑦𝑐
𝑞
= √𝑔𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐
𝑞2 3
𝑞3
= 𝑔𝑦𝑐 → 𝑦𝑐 =
𝑦𝑐 2 𝑔
𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 for rectangular channel
𝑔

2
𝑣𝑐 2
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐 → 𝑦𝑐 =
𝑔
𝑦𝑐 𝑣𝑐 2
=
2 2𝑔
𝑣2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔
𝑣𝑐 2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔
𝑦𝑐 3𝑦𝑐
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 + =
2 2
∴ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.5𝑦𝑐
2
𝑂𝑟 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
3

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25
 Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Example: A rectangular channel of bed width 4m is discharging water at rate 10

m3/sec. Plot the specific energy curve for this flow and from curve determine the
following:-
1- The critical depth (yc).
2- The minimum specific energy (Emin).
3- Alternate depths of flow for specific energy equal to 2m.
4- Check the result with these obtained by calculation.
5- What will be the type of flow if the depth is ;
a- 0.6 m
b- 2 m.
Sol.:
𝑄 = 10 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 𝑞2
𝐸=𝑦+ ∗
2𝑔 𝑦 2
𝑄 10 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 2.5 /𝑚
𝐵 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 (2.5)2 6.25 1
𝐸=𝑦+ ∗ = 𝑦 + ( )
2(9.81) 𝑦2 19.62 𝑦 2

y 0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5 0.625 0.75 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.125 1.375 1.5 1.75 2 2.5
E 20.51 5.37 2.65 1.78 1.44 1.32 1.3 1.295 1.32 1.38 1.58 1.64 1.85 2.08 2.55

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Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

𝑞2 1 (2.5)2 1
4- 𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = ( )3 = 0.8605 𝑚
𝑔 9.81
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.5𝑦𝑐 = 1.5(0.8605) = 1.29𝑚

When E=2m
1 (2.5)2
2=𝑦+ ∗
19.62 𝑦2
𝑦1 = 0.46 𝑚
𝑦2 = 1.91 𝑚

5- 𝑦 = 0.6 𝑚 < 𝑦 = 0.86 𝑚

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑣
𝑂𝑟 𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦
𝑞 2.5
𝑣= = = 4.16 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑦1 0.6
4.16
𝐹𝑟 = = 1.7 > 1
√9.81 × 0.6
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑦 > 2𝑚
𝑦𝑐 = 0.86 𝑚

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑣
𝑂𝑟 𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦
𝑞 2.5
𝑣= = = 1.25 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑦2 2
1.25
𝐹𝑟 = = 0.29 < 1
√9.81 × 2

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

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27
Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Example: A rectangular channel of most efficient cross section is laid on of (1to

1500) and discharging water at a rate of 40 m3/sec. Determine the type of flow in
this channel. Take C=60
Sol.:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅𝑆
For most efficient section 𝐵 = 2𝑦
∴ 𝐴 = 2𝑦 2
𝑦 1
40 = 60(2𝑦 2 )√ ( )
2 1500
𝑦 = 3.2 𝑚
𝐵 = 2(3.2) = 6.4 𝑚
𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔
𝑄 40 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 6.25 /𝑚
𝐵 6.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
(6.25)2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 1.58 𝑚
9.81
∴ 𝑦 = 3.2 𝑚 > 𝑦𝑐 = 1.58 𝑚
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑣
𝑂𝑟 𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦
𝑄 40
𝑣= = = 1.95 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 6.4(3.2)
1.95
𝐹𝑟 = = 0.34 < 1
√9.81 × 3.2

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

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Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

Specific Energy and Critical Depths for Non-Rectangular Channel

At section of any type of channel the specific energy of flowing equation:-

𝑣2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔
1 𝑄
𝐸=𝑦+ ∗ ( )2
2𝑔 𝐴
𝑄2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔𝐴2
𝑑𝐸 𝑄2 2 𝑑𝐴
=1+ (− 3 ) =0
𝑑𝑦 2𝑔 𝐴 𝑑𝑦

𝑄2 𝑑𝐴
∗ =1
𝑔𝐴3 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑇 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 , =𝑇
𝑑𝑦
T= Width of water surface at depth of water equal y.
𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑔
∗𝑇=1 , 3=
𝑔𝐴3 𝐴 𝑇

𝑄2 𝑔
= At critical condition
𝐴𝑐 3 𝑇𝑐

𝑄2 𝑔𝐴𝑐
=
𝐴𝑐 2 𝑇𝑐
𝑔𝐴𝑐
𝑣𝑐 2 =
𝑇𝑐
𝑔𝐴𝑐
𝑣𝑐 = √
𝑇𝑐
𝐴𝑐
(𝑦𝑐 )𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑇𝑐
𝑣𝑐 = √𝑔𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒)

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Open Channel Hydraulics Lectures

𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒) = The average depth for critical condition.

𝐴
= 𝑦(𝑎𝑣𝑒)
𝑇
𝑣𝑐 2 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒)
Now writing the equation for minimum specific energy equation
𝑣𝑐 2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔
𝑔𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒)
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔
𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒)
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2
𝑣𝑐
∴ 𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒)

Example: As shown in figure, water flow uniformly at a steady rate of 14 Cfs in

very long triangle flume that has side slope 1:1. The flume is laid on a slope 0.001
and n= 0.015. Is the flow in this flume subcritical or supercritical? And find
minimum specific energy?
Sol.:
1
𝐴 = (2𝑦)(𝑦) = 𝑦 2
2
𝑃 = 2√𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑦√2
𝐴 𝑦2 𝑦
𝑅= = =
𝑃 2𝑦√2 2√2
1.49 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
2
1.49 2)
𝑦 3 1
14 = ∗ (𝑦 ∗( ) ∗ (0.006)2
0.012 2√2
𝑦 = 1.494 𝑓𝑡
𝑄2 𝑔
= 𝑇𝑐 = 2𝑍𝑦𝑐 = 2𝑦𝑐
𝐴𝑐 3 𝑇𝑐
(14)2 32.2
=
(𝑦𝑐 2 )3 2𝑦𝑐

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𝑦 = 1.6848 > 𝑦𝑐 = 1.494

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝐴𝑐 𝑦𝑐 2 𝑦𝑐 1.648
(𝑦𝑐 )𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = = = 0.824
𝑇𝑐 2𝑦𝑐 2 2
𝑦𝑐 (𝑎𝑣𝑒)
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2
0.824
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.648 +
2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2.06 𝑓𝑡

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Example: A channel of trapezoidal section, 2m wide at the base with side sloping
45° with the horizontal. This channel carries water at rate of 6 m3/sec. Find the
following:-
1- The critical depth (yc).
2- What is the type of flow if the depth of water is 1m.
3- Compute Fr for normal depth of flow =1.2m.
Sol.:

1
tan 45° =
𝑍
𝑍=1
𝐴 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑍 ∗ 𝑦𝑐 2
= 2𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐 2

𝑇 = 𝐵 + 2𝑍𝑦𝑐
= 2 + 2𝑦𝑐

𝑄2 𝑔
=
𝐴𝑐 3 𝑇𝑐

62 9.81
=
(2𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐 )3 (2 + 2𝑦𝑐 )

62 (2𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐 )3
=
9.81 (2 + 2𝑦𝑐 )

𝑦𝑐 = 0.838 𝑚
𝑦 = 1𝑚 > 𝑦𝑐 = 0.838 𝑚
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑂𝑟
𝐴 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑍 ∗ 𝑦2
= 2 ∗ (1) + (1) ∗ (1)2 = 3𝑚

𝑄 6
𝑣= = = 2 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 3

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𝑣
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦𝑎𝑣.

𝐴 3
𝑦𝑎𝑣. = = = 0.75
𝑇 2 + 2(1)(1)

2
𝐹𝑟 = = 0.737 < 1
√9.81 × 0.75

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑦 = 1.2𝑚
𝐴 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑍 ∗ 𝑦2
= 2 ∗ (1.2) + (1) ∗ (1.2)2 = 3.84𝑚

𝑄 6
𝑣= = = 1.56 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 3.84
𝑣
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦𝑎𝑣.

𝐴 3.84
𝑦𝑎𝑣. = = = 0.87
𝑇 2 + 2(1)(1.2)

1.56
𝐹𝑟 = = 0. .533 < 1
√9.81 × 0.87

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

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Example: Compute the critical depth for flow at 0.4 m3/sec through the cross
section of figure. And what is the type of flow if the depth of water is 0.5 m?

Sol.:

1
𝐴= 2(𝑦𝑐 tan 30) × 𝑦𝑐
2
= 0.5774𝑦𝑐 2

𝑇 = 2(𝑦𝑐 tan 30)

= 1.155 𝑦𝑐

𝑄2 𝑔
=
𝐴𝑐 3 𝑇𝑐

0.42 9.81
=
(0.5774𝑦𝑐 2 )3 1.155 𝑦𝑐

𝑦𝑐 = 0.628 𝑚

𝑦 = 0.5𝑚 < 𝑦𝑐 = 0.628 𝑚

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

H.W: A channel of trapezoidal carry water at rate equal to of 10 m3/sec. Manning

n=0.02 and bed slope is 0.0025 the side slope of this channel (Z) is 2:1.
Compute the bed width (B) of this channel if the allowable velocity of flow is 1.5
m/sec

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Classification of Slopes

As already described, the type of flow depends upon the depth of flow.
There are three types of following depth:

1- Normal Depth (yn)

When a channel of given slope carries uniform flow, then the depth of flow in
the channel is called (Normal Depth). It is called normal because the area of flow
must be taken normal to the direction of flow which in case of uniform is parallel to
the bed.

2- Critical Depth (yc)

Already the definition of the critical depth have been given the flow is critical
when it is equal to normal depth.

3- Actual Depth (y)

If the flow in a channel is of gradually varied type, then the depth of flow
actually occurring at a section is called (Actual Depth).

Now, based upon the depth and type of flow, the bed slope may be classified in
to following five types:
1- Critical Slope (Sc).

The slope of channel bed is said to be critical, when the normal depth (y n) is
equal to the critical depth (yc). The critical slope can be calculated by Manning’s
formula if the depth (yc) is known. (yc=yn)

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2- Mild Slope

The mild slope of a channel may be defined as a slope less than the critical
slope. In this case the normal depth of flow will be greater than the critical depth
(yn>yc).

3- Steep Slope

When the slope of a channel is more than critical slope, it is said to be steep
slope. Hence, the normal depth for uniform flow will be less than critical depth
(yn<yc) and the flow being super critical flow.

4- Horizontal Slope

A channel with zero slope is said to be of horizontal slope.

5- Adverse Slope

This is negative slope, where the bed is rises in the direction of flow.

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Example: Find the alternate depths for a rectangular channel with bed with equal to
3.6 m and carrying a discharge of 8.64 m3 /sec. The specific energy (E) being 1.7
m. Determine the necessary slope to maintain uniform flow at the above depths and
name these slopes. Also, find the critical slope. What are the Froud’s number at the
flow depths assume n=0.015.

Sol.:
𝑣2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔
1 𝑞2
𝐸=𝑦+ ∗
2𝑔 𝑦 2
𝑄 8.64 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 2.4 /𝑚
𝐵 3.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 2.42
1.7 = 𝑦 + ∗
2𝑔 𝑦 2
𝑦1 = 0.48 𝑚
𝑦2 = 1.59 𝑚

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑦1 = 0.48 𝑚
𝐴1 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦1 = 3.6 ∗ 0.48 = 1.76 𝑚2
𝑃1 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦1 = 3.6 + 2 ∗ 0.48 = 4.58 𝑚

𝐴1 1.76
𝑅1 = = = 0.38 𝑚
𝑃1 4.58
1 2 1
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑅1 3 𝑆1 2
𝑛
1 2 1
8.64 = (1.76) (0.38)3 𝑆1 2
0.015
𝑆1 = 0.019

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑦2 = 1.59 𝑚
𝐴2 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦2 = 3.6 ∗ 1.59 = 5.75 𝑚2
𝑃2 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦2 = 3.6 + 2 ∗ 1.59 = 6.78 𝑚

𝐴2 5.75
𝑅2 = = = 0.84 𝑚
𝑃2 6.78

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1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴2 𝑅2 3 𝑆2 2
𝑛
1 2 1
8.64 = (5.75) (0.84)3 𝑆2 2
0.015
𝑆2 = 0.00064

In order to name the above slope it must be Sc therefore yc must be given:-

𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔
2.42 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 0.83 𝑚
9.81
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦𝑐 = 3.6 ∗ 0.83 = 2.98 𝑚2
𝑃𝑐 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦𝑐 = 3.6 + 2 ∗ 0.83 = 5.26 𝑚

𝐴𝑐 2.98
𝑅𝑐 = = = 0.56 𝑚
𝑃𝑐 5.26
1 2 1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑐 𝑆𝑐 2
3
𝑛
1 2 1
8.64 = (2.98) (0.56)3 𝑆𝑐 2
0.015
𝑆𝑐 = 0.00409
∴ 𝑆1 = 0.019 > 𝑆𝑐 = 0.00409 ∴ 𝑆1 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟)
∴ 𝑆2 = 0.00064 < 𝑆𝑐 = 0.00409 ∴ 𝑆2 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (𝑆𝑢𝑏)

𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1
𝑄 8.64
𝑣1 = = = 4.9 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 1.76
4.9
𝐹𝑟1 = = 2.23 > 1 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
√9.81 ∗ 0.48

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𝑣2
𝐹𝑟2 =
√𝑔𝑦2
𝑄 8.64
𝑣1 = = = 1.51 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴2 5.75
1.51
𝐹𝑟2 = = 0.38 < 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
√9.81 ∗ 1.59

𝑣𝑐
𝐹𝑟𝑐 =
√𝑔𝑦𝑐
𝑄 8.64
𝑣𝑐 = = = 2.891 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑐 2.98
2.891
𝐹𝑟𝑐 = = 1.01 ≈ 1 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤.
√9.81 ∗ 0.83

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Hydraulic Jump

When water is issued from a sluice gate to a channel of uniform width, it

comes out with a high velocity. The depth of flow will be less than critical depth and
hence the water moving with a super critical velocity. When this rapidly moving
stream strikes the slowing moving stream on the downstream side of the channel,
there will be sudden rise in water surface, The depth of flow abruptly increasing
from smaller depth (y1) to higher depth (y2).
This phenomenon of sudden rise of water surface is called (Hydraulic Jump)

Location of Hydraulic Jump

Hydraulic jump in rectangular channels may be formed at the following

places:-
1- After flowing water through a sluice gate in mild channel as shown in the
above figure.
2- Where the channel change in slope from steep slope to mild slope.

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3- Behind an over flow barrier provided in a steep channels.

4- After over flow spillway.

Types of Hydraulic Jump

The hydraulic jump may be classified according to the value of Froud Number
to the following types:-
a) Undular jump 1.0 < 𝐹𝑟 ≤ 1.7
b) Weak jump 1.7 < 𝐹𝑟 ≤ 2.5
c) Oscillating jump 2.5 < 𝐹𝑟 ≤ 4.5
d) Steady jump 4.5 < 𝐹𝑟 ≤ 9.0
e) Strong jump. 𝐹𝑟 > 9.0

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Basic characteristics of the hydraulic jump

1- Energy losses in the jump (∆𝐸)
∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
∆𝐸 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2
2- Height of the jump (𝐻𝑗 )
𝐻𝑗 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
3- Length of the jump (𝐿𝑗 )
𝐿𝑗 = 6.9 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

Equation of the hydraulic jump

The general equation of the hydraulic jump in rectangular channel is:-

𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1]
𝑦1 2
Or

𝑦1 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟2 2 − 1]
𝑦2 2

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 + , 𝐸2 = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔

Example: Water flow through of flume with depth of 0.6 m and unit discharge of
3.7 m3/sec/m.
1- Is a hydraulic jump will occur or not?
2- If a hydraulic jump occur, determine the depth of flow at the downstream side
of jump (y2) and find the energy loss (∆𝐸) in this jump. Find Fr2

Sol.:
𝑞 3.7
𝑣= = = 6.17 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑦 0.6

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𝑣 6.17
𝐹𝑟 = = = 2.54 > 1 ( 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
√𝑔𝑦 √9.81∗0.6

∴ 𝑂𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1]
𝑦1 2
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8(2.54)2 − 1]
0.6 2
𝑦2 = 1.88 𝑚

(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
∆𝐸 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2

(1.88 − 0.6)3
∆𝐸 = = 0.46 𝑚
4(1.88)(0.6)

𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ∆𝐸
∆𝐸% = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100
𝐸1 𝐸1

𝑣1 2 (6.17)2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 + = 0.6 + = 2.54 𝑚
2𝑔 19.62

0.46
∆𝐸% = ∗ 100 = 18.1%
2.54

Or ∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
3.7 2
𝑣2 2 ( )
𝐸2 = 𝑦2 + = 1.88 + 1.88 = 2.08 𝑚
2𝑔 19.62
∴ ∆𝐸 = 2.54 − 2.08 = 0.46 𝑚
3.7
𝑣2 1.88
𝐹𝑟2 = = = 0.46 < 1
√𝑔𝑦2 √9.81 ∗ 1.88

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Example: In rectangular channel of 4m width, there occurs a hydraulic jump

corresponding to Froud Number equal to 2.5. Determine the following if the height
of this jump is 2m.
1- Froude Number after the jump (Fr2).
2- Critical depth (yc).
3- Energy loss
Sol.:
𝐹𝑟1 = 2.5
𝐻𝑗 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) ------------------------(1)
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1]
𝑦1 2
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8(2.5)2 − 1]
𝑦1 2
𝑦2 = 3.07 𝑦1 -----------------------------(2)
Sub (2) in (1)
2 = 3.07 𝑦1 − 𝑦1
𝑦1 = 0.966
𝑦2 = 2.966 𝑚
𝑦1 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟2 2 − 1]
𝑦2 2
0.966 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟2 2 − 1]
2.966 2
𝐹𝑟2 = 0.464
𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔

𝑄 = 𝑣1 ∗ 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 ∗ 𝐴2
𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1

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𝑣1
2.5 =
√9.81 ∗ 0.966
𝑣1 = 7.69 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 = 0.966 ∗ 4 = 3.86 𝑚2
𝑄 = 7.69 ∗ 3.86 = 29.7 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 29.7 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 7.43 /𝑚
𝐵 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
(7.43)2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 1.78 𝑚
9.81
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3 (2.966 − 0.966)3
∆𝐸 = = = 0.69
4𝑦1 𝑦2 4(0.966)(2.966)
∆𝐸
∆𝐸% = ∗ 100
𝐸1
𝑣1 2 (7.69)2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 + = 0.966 + = 3.98 𝑚
2𝑔 19.62
0.69
∆𝐸% = ∗ 100 = 17.3%
3.98

Hydraulic Jump in slope Rectangular channels

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𝑦2 1 8𝐹𝑟1 2
√
= [ 1+ − 1]
𝑦1 2 1 − 𝑘 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ tan 𝜃
𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Use the equations at the 𝜃 ≤ 20°
𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 > 1
𝑘 = 1.06
𝐼𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝐿𝑗 = 6.9 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝐿𝑗 = 𝑡 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
6.9
𝑡=
(1 + 5 tan 𝜃)
∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐿𝑗 sin 𝜃 − 𝐸2
𝐻𝑗 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

Example: A (50 m) wide Spillway chute is designed discharge of (100 m3/sec) and
has bed slope of (3H:1V). A hydraulic jump is formed on the chute at a point where
the (y1) is 0.3 m. What would be depth (y2) of the jump. Estimate the length of jump
(Lj) and energy loss (∆E). Use k=1.06
Sol.:

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𝑦2 1 8𝐹𝑟1 2
√
= [ 1+ − 1]
𝑦1 2 1 − 𝑘 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ tan 𝜃
1
tan 𝜃 = → 𝜃 = 18.4° < 20° 𝑂𝐾
3

6.9
𝑡=
(1 + 5 tan 𝜃)
6.9
𝑡= = 2.59
(1 + 5 tan 18.4)
𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑄 𝑄 100
𝑣1 = = = = 6.67 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 𝐿 ∗ 𝑦1 50 ∗ 0.3
6.67
𝐹𝑟1 = = 3.99
√9.81 ∗ 0.3 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠18.4

𝑦2 1 8(3.99)2
= [√1 + − 1]
0.3 2 1 − 1.06 ∗ 2.59 ∗ tan 18.4

𝑦2 = 5.66 𝑚
𝐿𝑗 = 𝑡 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 2.59(5.66 − 0.3) = 13.88 𝑚
∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐿𝑗 sin 𝜃 − 𝐸2
𝑣1 2 (6.67)2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 cos 𝜃 + = 0.3 cos 18.4 + = 2.55 𝑚
2𝑔 19.62
100
𝑣2 2 ( )2
𝐸2 = 𝑦2 cos 𝜃 + = 5.66 cos 18.4 + 50 ∗ 5.66 = 5.376 𝑚
2𝑔 19.62
∆𝐸 = 2.55 + 13.88 sin 18.4 − 5.376
∆𝐸 = 1.555 𝑚

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Example: As shown in the figure, water flow in 3 m wide rectangular channel, the
Manning’s (n) of this channel is 0.012. The bed slope (S) of the channel before the
(SAB = 0.0004) and after the drop (SBC = 0.17). At the end of the second slope,
hydraulic jump occurred with y1 and y2 equal to 0.4 m and 2.3 m respectively. Find
yn at point A and yc at point B. K=1.06.

Sol.:

tan 𝜃 = 0.17 → 𝜃 = 9.64° < 20° 𝑂𝐾

6.9
𝑡=
(1 + 5 tan 𝜃)
6.9
𝑡= = 3.73
(1 + 5 tan 9.64)

𝑦2 1 8𝐹𝑟1 2
= [√1 + − 1]
𝑦1 2 1 − 𝑘 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ tan 𝜃

2.3 1 8𝐹𝑟1 2
√
= [ 1+ − 1]
0.4 2 1 − 1.06 ∗ 2.73 ∗ tan 9.64

𝐹𝑟1 = 2.522

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𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣1
2.522 =
√9.81 ∗ 0.4 cos 9.64
𝑣1 = 4.96 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 𝑣1 𝐴1 = 4.96 ∗ (0.4 ∗ 3) = 5.95 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐴)
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
1 3𝑦𝑛 2 1
5.95 = (3𝑦𝑛 )( )3 (0.0004)2
0.012 3 + 2𝑦𝑛
𝑦𝑛 = 1.45 𝑚
𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔

𝑄 5.95 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 1.98 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐵 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.982 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 0.74 𝑚
9.81
𝑣𝐴
𝐹𝑟𝐴 =
√𝑔𝑦𝑛
5.95
(1.45 ∗ 3)
𝐹𝑟𝐴 = = 0.36
√9.81 ∗ 1.45

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Hydraulic Jump in Non-Rectangular Channel

If the side walls of channel are not vertical, such as a trapezoidal channel, the
flow a jump will involve lateral expansion of the stream addition to increase in a
depth.
The cross section areas are not linear function to the depth of flow. This
aspect introduce not only computational difficult in the calculation of the sequent
𝑦2
depth ration ( ) but also structural changes in the jump.
𝑦1
A brief introduction to this rather wide field of jumps in non-rectangular
channels given in the following section.

Basic Equation

Consider a horizontal frictionless channel of any arbitrary shape, such as

shown in the following figure:

For a hydraulic jump this channel, the general momentum equation:-

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1
𝑃 = 𝛾𝐴1 𝑦1

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𝛾𝐴1 𝑦1 − 𝛾𝐴2 𝑦2 = 𝜌𝑄2 𝑣2 − 𝜌𝑄1 𝑣1

𝑄 𝑄
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣2 = , 𝑣1 =
𝐴2 𝐴1
Where:-
A= Area of cross section
y=depth of center of gravitation of area from the water surface.

Rearranging the previous equation.

𝑃1 + 𝑀1 = 𝑃2 + 𝑀2
𝑄2 𝛾
𝑃1 + 𝑀1 = 𝛾 (𝐴y + ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ,𝜌 =
𝑔𝐴 𝑔
𝑃+𝑀 𝑄2
= 𝑃𝑠 = 𝐴y + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 𝑔𝐴
𝑃𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑄2
𝑃𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑦 +
𝑔𝐴
The specific force Ps is a function of the depth of flow, channel geometry and
discharge. A parabolic curve is obtained for plots of (Ps) and (y) for a given channel
discharge as shown in the figure of the following example.
The lower limb represent the supercritical flow and the upper limb the subcritical
flow.
An ordinate drawn at a given Ps cuts the curve at two points A and B, Where the
representative depths represent the sequent depths (y1 and y2) for a given discharge.
The point C corresponding to the critical depth for a given Q
The Energy loss (∆𝐸) due to a jump in non-rectangular horizontal channel is:-
𝑄2 1 1
∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + ( 2 − 2)
2𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴2

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Example: As trapezoidal channel is 2 m wide at the bottom and has side slope of
1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical .constant the specific force diagram for a discharge (Q=
13.5 m3/sec ) and then find the depth sequent to the supercritical depth of 0.5m.
Sol.:

𝑄2
𝑃𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑦 +
𝑔𝐴
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑦1 + 𝐴2 𝑦2 + 𝐴3 𝑦3
1 1 1 1 1
= (1.5𝑦)(𝑦) ∗ ( 𝑦) + 2𝑦 ( 𝑦) + (1.5𝑦)(𝑦) ∗ ( 𝑦)
2 3 2 2 3
1 1
= 𝑦3 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
4 4
1
∴ 𝐴𝑦 = 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2
2
𝑄2 (13.5)2 (13.5)2 18.578
= = =
𝑔𝐴 9.81 ∗ (𝐵𝑦 + 𝑍𝑦 2 ) 9.81 ∗ (2𝑦 + 1.5𝑦 2 ) 𝑦(2 + 1.5𝑦)
1 3 18.578
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑦 + 𝑦2 +
2 𝑦(2 + 1.5𝑦)
𝑦 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 6

𝑃𝑠 86.42 40.43 25.38 13.8 8.15 6.81 6.7 9.86 23.45 48.88 144.28

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𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦𝑐 = 1.24 𝑚

𝑄2 𝑔
=
𝐴𝑐 3 𝑇𝑐
(13.5)2 9.81 (13.5)2 (2𝑦𝑐 + 1.5𝑦𝑐 2 )3
= , =
(2𝑦𝑐 + 1.5𝑦𝑐 2 )3 2 + 3𝑦𝑐 9.81 2 + 3𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐 = 1.24 𝑚
𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1𝑎𝑣
𝑄 𝑄 13.5
𝑣1 = = =
𝐴1 (𝐵𝑦1 + 𝑍𝑦1 ) (2 ∗ 0.5 + 1.5 ∗ 0.52 )
2

= 9.82 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 1.375
𝑦1𝑎𝑣 = =
𝑇1 2 + 2(1.5)(0.5)
= 0.4 𝑚

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9.82
𝐹𝑟1 = = 4.95
√9.81 ∗ 0.4
𝑣2
𝐹𝑟2 =
√𝑔𝑦1𝑎𝑣
𝑄 𝑄 13.5
𝑣2 = = =
𝐴2 (𝐵𝑦2 + 𝑍𝑦2 2 ) (2 ∗ 2.38 + 1.5 ∗ 2.382 )
= 1.01 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴2 13.25
𝑦2𝑎𝑣 = =
𝑇2 2 + 2(1.5)(2.38)
= 1.45 𝑚
1.01
𝐹𝑟2 = = 0.27
√9.81 ∗ 1.45
𝑣𝑐
𝐹𝑟𝑐 =
√𝑔𝑦𝑐𝑎𝑣
𝑄 𝑄 13.5
𝑣𝑐 = = = = 2.82 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑐 (𝐵𝑦𝑐 + 𝑍𝑦𝑐 2 ) (2 ∗ 1.24 + 1.5 ∗ 1.242 )
𝐴𝑐 4.78
𝑦𝑐 𝑎𝑣 = = = 0.837 𝑚
𝑇𝑐 2 + 2(1.5)(1.24)
2.82
𝐹𝑟𝑐 =
√9.81 ∗ 0.837
= 0.984 ≈ 1

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Classification of Surface Profile in Gradually Varied Flow

Water surface profile in gradually varied flow in channel may be classified
according to the bottom slope of the channel. The various surface profile according
in the channel of different slopes are designed as given below.
1. Mild sloped channel (M-Curves).
2. Steep sloped channel (S-Curves).
3. Critical sloped channel (C-Curves).
4. Horizontal sloped channel (H-Curves).
5. Adverse sloped channel (A-Curves).
These curves may further be classified according to the actual depth (y) of
water surface in relation to the critical depth (yc) and normal depth (yn).There are
three zones are created by the normal depth line drawn parallel to the channel
bottom.
1. Zone I:- The surface above both the normal depth and critical depth lines.
2. Zone II:- The space between the normal depth and critical depth lines.
3. Zone III:- The space below both the normal depth and critical depth
lines.
All zones are available for mild and steep channels. In each zone a curve will
be formed. These curves are designed M1, M2, M3 and S1, S2, S3. For mild and
steep slopes respectively. For critical sloped channel, surface profile in zone I and
zone III designated C1 and C3 surfaces respectively. For horizontal sloped channel
the normal depth yn is imaginary, as such only two zone II and III are available
resulting in two types of curves A2 and A3 only.

a) Surface profile in mild sloped channel:

In such channel the normal depth (yn) is greater than critical depth (yc) and
all three zones are available.

In zone I:- The curve M1 will be formed .The M1 curve meet the normal
depth line asymptotically on the upstream side and tends to become
horizontal on the downstream side. Such type of surface profile occurs at
a dam or weir constructed a cross a mild sloped channel.

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In zone II:- The M2 curve meet the normal depth line asymptotically and
the critical depth line normally on the upstream and downstream sides
respectively. The M2 curve occur when mild sloped channel approach a
vertical fall in bed. The critical depth occur at section just before the fall.

In zone III:- The M3 curve meet the critical depth line and the channel
bottom line normally. The profile also represents the back water curve this
type of curve occurs where water is discharge in mild slope channel
through a sluice gate provided in reservoir.

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b) surface profile in steep sloped channel:-

In this case also three types of curves S1, S2 and S3 , in respective to zones
I, II and III

In zone I:- This curve occurs which meets the critical depth line normally
on the upstream side and tend to become horizontal on the downstream
side . This type of curve generally occurs where a dam is constructed a
cross a channel with steep slope. Hydraulic jump will take place before S1
profile is generated.

In zone II:- The S2 curve meet the critical depth line normally on the
upstream side and it meets the normal depth line asymptotically at
downstream side.

In zone III:- The S3 profile representing a back water curve meet a

channel bottom line normally at the upstream side and in the upstream
side it meets the normal depth line asymptotically.

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c) Surface profiles in critical :-

In zone I: The C1 curve meets the normal line normally at upstream side
and that tend to become horizontal at the downstream side.

In zone III:- The C3 curve meets the bottom of the channel normally at
upstream side and asymptotical to the normal line at downstream side.

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Energy Equation for Gradually Varied Flow (Direct Step Method)

The energy equation for steady flow between two sections 1 and 2 of a
distance ∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠: −
By sub (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) = 𝑆0 ∆𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓 = 𝑆𝑓 ∆𝑥
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
𝑍1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑍2 + 𝑦2 + + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 𝑆0 ∆𝑥

𝑍1 − 𝑍2
𝑆0 =
∆𝑥
The energy equation may be also be written in form:-
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 + + (𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆0 )∆𝑥
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝐸1 − 𝐸2
∆𝑥 =
𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆0
𝐸1 = 𝐸2 +(𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆0 )∆𝑥
𝑣∗𝑛
𝑆𝑓 = ( 2 )2 − − − − − 𝑆𝐼
𝑅3
𝑣∗𝑛 2
𝑆𝑓 = ( 2) − − − 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠ℎ
1.49 ∗ 𝑅3

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Example: A rectangular channel is 3m wide and laid on a slope of (0.001) carries

a flow of normal depth of 1.2m. Sharp crested rectangular weir (Cd=0.02) is located
with its crests at a 2m above the channel bottom at the downstream end of channel
as shown below n= 0.023, compute the length of the water surface profile and the
name of it by using direct step method between A and B.
Sol.:
Note :-
1- Use two step
3
2- The formula of discharge over sharp crested weir is (𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵𝐻2 )

Where:-
B= the weir width
H= Depth of flow over the crest.

1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦 = 3 ∗ 1.2 = 3.6 𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 3 + 2(1.2) = 5.4 𝑚
𝐴 3.6
𝑅ℎ = = = 0.667 𝑚
𝑃 5.4
1 2 1
𝑄= (3.6)(0.667)3 ∗ (0.001)2
0.023
𝑄 = 3.778 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

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3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵𝐻2
3
3.778 = 0.62 ∗ 3 ∗ 𝐻2
𝐻 = 1.6 𝑚
∴ 𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵 = 2 + 1.6 = 3.6 𝑚

𝒚 𝑨= 𝑩∗𝒚 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚 𝑹 𝑽 = 𝑸/𝑨 𝒗𝟐 𝑬 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐
𝟐𝒈

1.2 3.6 5.4 0.667 1.05 0.056 1.256

- 1.158
2.4 7.2 7.8 0.923 0.525 0.014 2.414
1.192
3.6 10.8 10.2 1.059 0.350 0.0062 3.606

𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐 𝟒
𝒗𝒎 𝟐 𝑣𝑚 2 ∗ 𝑛2 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒐 ∆𝒙 = ∆𝑬/∆𝒔 𝑳
𝒗𝒎 = 𝑹𝒎 𝟑
𝟐 𝑆𝑓 = 4
𝑅3
0.787 0.736 0.620 0.000421 -0.00058 -1998.71 -3327.2

0.437 0.988 0.191 0.000103 -0.0009 -1328.47

𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔

𝑄 3.778 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 1.259 /𝑚
𝐵 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.2592 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 0.54
9.81

∴ 𝑦𝑛 = 1.2 > 𝑦𝑐 = 0.54 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑀

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Example: A Sluice gate was constructed on a horizontal rectangular channel with

the following data:-
1. The depth of flow is the channel 3 m.
2. Bed width of the channel 6m.
3. Velocity of flow in channel before the gate 0.9 m/sec.
4. The depth of the gate opening 0.25 m.
5. A hydraulic jump occurred after the gate.

a- Find the location of jump from the gate.

b- What is the name of curve between the gate and the jump.
c- What the name of the jump.
d- Find the ∆𝐸

Sol.:
𝐸 = 𝐸1 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2
𝑣 𝑣1 2
𝑦+ = 𝑦1 +
2𝑔 2𝑔

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𝑄2
2
(0.9) 2
3+ = 𝑦1 + 𝐴𝑐
19.62 19.62
𝑄 = 𝑣. 𝐴 = 0.9 ∗ (3.6) = 16.2 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
16.22
(0.9)2 6𝑦1 2
3+ = 𝑦1 +
19.62 19.62
𝑦1 = 0.37 𝑚
𝒚 𝑨= 𝑩∗𝒚 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚 𝑹 𝑽 = 𝑸/𝑨 𝒗𝟐 𝑬 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐
𝟐𝒈
0.25 1.5 6.5 0.23 10.8 5.9 6.15
- 1.98
0.31 1.86 6.62 0.28 8.7 3.86 4.17
1.1
0.37 2.22 6.74 0.32 7.3 2.7 3.07

𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝒎 𝟐 𝑹𝒎 𝟒
𝑣𝑚 2 ∗ 𝑛2 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒐 ∆𝒙 = ∆𝑬/∆𝒔 𝑳
𝒗𝒎 = 𝑹𝒎 𝟑
𝟐 𝑆𝑓 = 4
𝑅3
9.75 95 0.255 0.16 0.31 0.31 6.38 12.85

8 64 0.3 0.2 0.17 0.17 6.47

𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔

𝑄 16.2 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 2.7 /𝑚
𝐵 6 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2.72 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 0.91
9.81

∴ 𝑦𝑛 = 0.25 < 𝑦𝑐 = 0.91 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐻2

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𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1
𝑄 16.2
𝑣1 = = = 7.2 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 0.37 ∗ 6
7.2
𝐹𝑟1 = = 3.38 , (2.5 − 4.5)
√9.81 ∗ 0.37
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1]
𝑦1 2
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8(3.38)2 − 1]
0.37 2
𝑦2 = 1.82 𝑚
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
∆𝐸 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2
(1.82 − 0.37)3
∆𝐸 = = 1.13
4(0.37)(1.82)
∆𝐸
∆𝐸% =
𝐸1
𝑣1 2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 +
2𝑔
𝐸1 = 3.07 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
1.13
∆𝐸% = = 36.704%
3.07

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Example: At a section in very smooth rectangular channel of 6ft width, the depth
is 3ft when the flow rate is 160cfs. Compute the distance to the section where the
depth is 3.2ft, if S0 =0.002 and n=0.012.

Sol.:
𝑄 = 160 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑦 = 3 𝑓𝑡
𝑦1 = 3.2 𝑓𝑡

𝒚 𝑨= 𝑩∗𝒚 𝑷 = 𝑩 + 𝟐𝒚 𝑹 𝑽 = 𝑸/𝑨 𝒗𝟐 𝑬 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐
𝟐𝒈

3 18 12 1.5 8.889 1.227 4.227

0.0221
3.1 18.6 12.2 1.525 8.602 4.249 4.349
0.0293
3.2 19.2 12.4 1.548 8.333 1.078 4.278

𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝒎 𝟐 𝑹𝒎 𝟒
𝑣𝑚 2 ∗ 𝑛2 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒐 ∆𝒙 = ∆𝑬/∆𝒔 𝑳
𝒗𝒎 = 𝑹𝒎 𝟑
𝟐 𝑆𝑓 = 4
1.49𝑅3
8.746 76.49 1.512 1.736 0.002857 0.000857 25.787 72.817

8.468 71.707 1.537 1.773 0.002623 0.000623 47.03

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 72.817 𝑓𝑡

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Venturi Flume in Channel

Based upon the principle of critical flow, device been developed to measure
the rate of flow through channel.
The critical depth of flow can be maintained on certain section along channel
by any of the following methods:
1- By reducing the width of channel.
2- By providing a hump of bottom of the channel.
3- By combining the above two methods.

In Venturi flume the discharge through all open channels is measured restricted
section called (Throat) as shown in the figure:

B1: Normal width of channel.

v1: Velocity of flow at section A-A.
y1: Depth of flow at section A-A.
B2: Width of channel at section B-B.
v2: Velocity of flow at section B-B.
y2: Depth of flow at section B-B.

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The section B-B being the narrowest part of the throat the discharge.
𝑄 = 𝐵1 𝑦1 ∗ 𝑣1 = 𝐵2 𝑦2 ∗ 𝑣2
𝑣2 > 𝑣1
∴ 𝐵1 𝑦1 > 𝐵2 𝑦2
Hence: The velocity increase at section B-B causing the depth of flow to fall as
specific energy remains constant. Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section A-A
and section B-B.
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
2
𝑣2 𝑣1 2
𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = −
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = difference between the depth of water at section A-A and section B-B.
𝑣2 2 𝑣1 2
𝑦= −
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣2 2 𝑣1 2 2𝑔
𝑦= (1 − ∗ )
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑣2 2
𝑄 2
𝑣2 2
𝑣1 𝑣2 2 )
2 (
𝐵1 𝑦1
𝑦= (1 − 2 ) = (1 − )
2𝑔 𝑣2 2𝑔 𝑄 2
( )
𝐵2 𝑦2
𝑣2 2 (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2
= (1 − )
2𝑔 (𝐵1 𝑦1 )2
𝑣2 2 (𝐵1 𝑦1 )2 − (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2
= ( )
2𝑔 (𝐵1 𝑦1 )2

√2𝑔 ∗ (𝐵1 𝑦1 )√𝑦

𝑣2 =
√(𝐵1 𝑦1 )2 − (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2

√2𝑔 ∗ (𝐵1 𝑦1 ) ∗ √𝑦1 − 𝑦2

𝑣2 =
√(𝐵1 𝑦1 )2 − (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2

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𝑄 = 𝐵2 𝑦2 ∗ 𝑣2

√2𝑔 ∗ (𝐵2 𝑦2 ) (𝐵1 𝑦1 ) ∗ √𝑦1 − 𝑦2

𝑄=
√(𝐵1 𝑦1 )2 − (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2

√2𝑔 ∗ (𝐵2 𝑦2 ) (𝐵1 𝑦1 ) ∗ √𝑦1 − 𝑦2

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗
√(𝐵1 𝑦1 )2 − (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2
Cd: Coefficient of discharge.
1 𝑣 2 𝑣 2
If 𝐸 = 𝑦1 + 2𝑔 = 𝑦2 + 2
2𝑔

𝑄 = 𝐴2 ∗ 𝑣2
The 𝑣2 = √𝐸 − 𝑦2 ∗ √2𝑔

𝑄 = 𝐵2 𝑦2 ∗ √𝐸 − 𝑦2 ∗ √2𝑔
1
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐵2 𝑦2 ∗ (𝐸 − 𝑦2 )2 ∗ √2𝑔
1
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐵2 √2𝑔 ∗ (𝐸𝑦2 2 − 𝑦2 3 )2
For minimum value of discharge differentiation Q with respect to variable depth y2
we get:
𝑑𝑄
= 2𝐸𝑦2 − 3𝑦2 2 = 0
𝑑𝑦
2
𝑦2 = 𝐸
3
3
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑦2
2
The discharge through the flume will be maximum if depth of flow at the
throat is two-third of total energy of flow.
Now, since:-
𝑣2 2
𝐸 = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔

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3 𝑣2 2
𝑦2 = 𝑦2 +
2 2𝑔
𝑣2
∴ =1
√𝑔𝑦2

Or the maximum discharge occurs when Froude Number is unity. This is

condition for critical depth.
Substituting the value of y2 we get:-
2 2
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵2 √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐸√𝐸 − 𝐸
3 3

3
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.705𝐵2 𝐸 2

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Example: A 2m wide rectangular channel is provide with a Venturi flume of 1m

wide throat. Determine the discharge through the channel. If the depths of water at
the upstream side and the throat are 1m and 0.9 m respectively.

Sol.:

√2𝑔 ∗ (𝐵2 𝑦2 ) (𝐵1 𝑦1 ) ∗ √𝑦1 − 𝑦2

𝑄=
√(𝐵1 𝑦1 )2 − (𝐵2 𝑦2 )2

√19.62 ∗ (1 ∗ 0.9) (2 ∗ 1) ∗ √1 − 0.9

𝑄=
√(2 ∗ 1)2 − (1 ∗ 0.9)2
𝑄 = 1.411 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐.

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Example: A Venturi flume is to be constructed in a 4m wide horizontally rectangular

channel. The maximum discharge in the channel is 4.8 m3/sec and the depth of flow
in the channel is 2.1m. Calculate the width of the throat required? and find the depth
of flow at the throat?.

Sol.:
3
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.705𝐵2 𝐸 2
𝑣1 2
𝐸 = 𝑦1 +
2𝑔
𝑄
𝑣1 =
𝐴1
𝐴1 = 2.1 ∗ 4 = 8.4 𝑚2
4.8
𝑣1 = = 0.571 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
8.4
(0.571)2
𝐸 = 2.1 + = 2.1166 𝑚
19.62
3
4.8 = 1.705𝐵2 (2.1166)2
𝐵2 = 0.914 𝑚
3
𝐸= 𝑦
2 2
3
2.1166 = 𝑦
2 2
𝑦2 = 1.411 𝑚

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Standing Wave Flume

This is a structure in a channel which has section as shown in the figure:-

Difference between Venturi flume and standing wave flume is in the

formation of hydraulic jump which does not occur in Venturi flume.
In case of standing wave flume, the velocity of flow at throat of flume will be
greater than the critical velocity, Therefore a hydraulic jump will definitely occur at
or near the downstream end of the hump. This causes a greater loss of energy in
standing wave flume. The depth of flow at the throat or over the hump may be
assumed to be critical depth.
Hence: in standing wave flume only one measurement of depth of flow on the
upstream side of the throat will be sufficient to estimate the discharge.
The discharge is given by:

𝑄 = 𝐵2 𝑦2 √2𝑔 √𝐸 − 𝑦2 − ℎ
Where h:- height of the hump.
3
And 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.705𝐵2 (𝐸 − ℎ)2

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Example: In pervious example, a hump of (250 mm) is placed at the throat section
so that standing wave occurs on downstream side. Determine the rise in the surface
of water at upstream side .if the discharge is remains constant.

Sol.:
Bernoulli equation
between sections 1 and 2
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 + +ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐
𝑞2 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3
𝑔
𝑚3
𝑄 = 1.411 . 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 1.411 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 1.411 /𝑚
𝐵 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.4112 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 0.588 𝑚
9.81
1.411 2 1.411 2
( ) ( )
2 ∗ 𝑦1
𝑦1 + = 0.588 + 1 ∗ 0.588 + 0.25
19.62 19.62
𝑦1 = 1.12 𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 .
∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.12 − 1 = 0.12 𝑚

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Example: A water flows at a steady and uniform depth of 2m in an open rectangular

channel having base width equal to 5 m and laid at a slope 1 to 1000. It designed to
obtain critical flow in the channel by providing a hump in the bed. Calculate the
hump height .use n=0.02.

Sol.:
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦 = 5 ∗ 2 = 10 𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 5 + 2 ∗ 2 = 9 𝑚
𝐴 10
𝑅= = = 1.11 𝑚
𝑃 9
2 1
1 1 𝑚3
𝑄= ∗ 10 ∗ (1.11)3 ( )2 = 16.96 .
0.02 1000 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 16.96
𝑣1 = = = 1.696 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 10
𝑄 16.96 𝑚3
𝑞= = = 3.39 /𝑚
𝐵 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3.392 1
𝑦𝑐 = ( )3 = 1.054 𝑚
9.81
3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐
2
3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1.054) = 1.581𝑚
2
𝑣1 2
𝑦1 + = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ℎ
2𝑔
(1.696)2
2+ = 1.581 + ℎ
19.62
ℎ = 0.565 𝑚
∴ ℎ = 565 𝑚𝑚

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Example: A venturi flume is to be constructed in a rectangular channel 5 m wide.

Carrying water in a normal depth of 1.5 m. The slope of the channel bed being (1 to
5600). The throat is 2.5 m wide and depth of water on upstream is to be increasing
to 1.75 m by providing a hump neglecting the losses. Determine the height of the
hump . Assume C=75
Sol.:
3
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.705𝐵2 (𝐸 − ℎ)2 -----------------(1)
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅𝑆 -----------------(2)
𝐴 = 5 ∗ 1.5 = 7.5 𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 = 5 + 2 ∗ 1.5 = 8 𝑚
𝐴 7.5
𝑅= = = 0.937 𝑚
𝑃 8

1 𝑚3
𝑄 = 75 ∗ 7.5√(0.937) ( ) = 7.26 .
5600 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑣2
𝐸=𝑦+ For new height y=1.75
2𝑔
m
𝑄 7.26
𝑣1 = = = 0.832 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 1.75 ∗ 5
(0.832)2
𝐸 = 1.75 + = 1.785 𝑚
19.62
Sub in Eq. (1)
3
7.26 = 1.705 ∗ 5(1.785 − ℎ)2
ℎ = 0.358 𝑚
∴ ℎ = 358 𝑚𝑚

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Weirs
A weir is widely used for measuring or controlling the
flow of water over dam made a cross the channel or
river.

Type of weirs
The weir may be classified as given below:-
1. Based upon the shape of the weir :-
a. Rectangular weir.
b. Cipolletti weir.
c. V- notch weir
2. Based upon the width of the sill or crest :-
a. Narrow crested weir.
b. Broad crested weir.

3. Based upon the type of the discharge :-

a. Weir having a free discharge.
b. Drowned or submerged weir.

4. Based upon the type of the crest :-

a. Sharp crested weir.
b. Ogee weir.

5. Based upon the end contraction:-

a. Suppressed weir.
b. Weir with end.

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Rectangular weir
A discharge through a rectangular
weir can be obtained exactly in the
similar way as obtained in the case
of rectangular notch.
Let
L: Length of the weir
H: Height of water surface over the sill of the weir.
Cd : Coefficient of the weir.
Considering an elementary horizontal strip of water of thickness (dh) at depth (h)
from the free surface as shown in the figure.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑑ℎ
Discharge through elementary strip is given by:

𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ (𝐿 ∗ 𝑑ℎ) ∗ √2𝑔ℎ
Therefore:
𝐻
Total discharge 𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = ∫0 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑑ℎ ∗ √2𝑔ℎ
𝐻
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ √2𝑔ℎ ∫0 𝑑ℎ
3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ [ℎ ]0 𝐻
2
3
3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻 2
3

Example: Determine the discharge over the rectangular weir having 2m long sill.
The head of water over the sill is 0.3m. Assume Cd =0.62
Sol.:
3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻 2
3
2 3
𝑄 = ∗ 0.62 ∗ √19.62 ∗ 2 ∗ (0.3)2
3
𝑄 = 0.6 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Example: A reservoir has catchment area of 12 km2. The daily record of the rainfall
in the area is 25cm. If only 70% of the rainfall is collected in the reservoir, then find
the length of weir if the head over sill of this weir is not exceed 50cm. Take Cd =0.62
for rectangular weir?

Sol.:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 12 𝑘𝑚2 = 12 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1000 = 12 ∗ 106 𝑚2
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 25 𝑐𝑚 = 0.25 𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 12 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.25 = 3 ∗ 106 𝑚3

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟

= 3 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.7 = 2.1 ∗ 106 𝑚3

2.1 ∗ 106 𝑚3
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 =
1 𝑑𝑎𝑦
6 3
2.1 ∗ 10 𝑚
∴𝑄 = = 24.3 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻 2
3
2 3
24.3 = ∗ 0.62 ∗ √19.62 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ (0.5)2
3
𝐿 = 73.6 𝑚

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Francis Formula for Rectangular weir

This an empirical formula based upon experiments an rectangular weir, Francis
found that as the water flows over the weirs, the vein is contracted at the end of the
sill as shown below:-

This contraction is also known as side contraction. It was also experimentally found
that the end contraction takes place by an amount of one tenth (1/10) of the head
over the sill.
So, the effective length of the weir with two end contraction shall be (L-0.2H) and
the discharge is given by:
3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ (𝐿 − 0.2𝐻) ∗ 𝐻2
3

In general, Francis formula ,may be written as:-

3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ (𝐿 − 𝑛 (0.1𝐻)) ∗ 𝐻 2
3

When Cd =0.63 and g =9.81 m/sec2

3
𝑄 = 1.84 ∗ (𝐿 − 𝑛 (0.1𝐻)) ∗ 𝐻2

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Example: A (10m) long weir is subdivided by five intermediate vertical posts each
(0.5m) wide. The head of water over the sill of weir is (0.6m). Calculate the
discharge over the weir by using Francis formula?

Sol.:
3
𝑄 = 1.84 ∗ (𝐿 − 𝑛 (0.1𝐻)) ∗ 𝐻2

𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 5
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 5 + 1 = 6
𝑛 = 6 ∗ 2 = 12
𝐻 = 0.6 𝑚

𝐿 = 10 − (5 ∗ 0.5) = 7.5 𝑚
3
𝑄 = 1.84 ∗ (7.5 − 12 ∗ 0.1(0.6)) ∗ (0.6)2

𝑄 = 5.8 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Cipolletti weir
The Cipolletti weir is just a trapezoidal weir having side of one horizontal to four
vertical as shown in figure:-

This weir designed to take the coefficient of contraction while using Francis
formula. Therefore, the Cipolletti weir forming is given by:-
3
𝑄 = 1.84 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻 2

Example: A Cipolletti weir is discharged 600 litter of water per second. If the depth
1
of water over the crest of this weir is not exceed ( ) 𝑡ℎ of its length. Determine the
10
length of this weir.
Sol.:
𝑄 = 600 𝑙/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 0.6 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1
𝐻= 𝐿
10
3
𝑄 = 1.84 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻2
1 3
𝑄 = 1.84 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ ( 𝐿)2
10
𝐿 = 254 𝑚

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Narrow crested weir

When weirs classified on the basis of the width of crest. They are known as:-
1. Narrow crested weir.
2. Broad crested weir.

The weir is known narrow crested weir its width (B) is less than 0.66 H. where H
the head over the crest.

𝐵 < 0.66 𝐻

The formula discharge over narrow crested weir is the same that for a rectangular
weir:-
2 3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻2
3
Broad crested weir
As shown in the figure the width of a broad crested weir is more than 0.66 H and
water flows over the weir as shown :-
𝐵 > 0.66 𝐻

The formula discharge over broad crested weir is:-

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ √2𝑔(𝐻ℎ2 − ℎ3 )
From the above equation of the discharge we find that Q is function of (Hh2-h3)
where Q will be maximum for the maximum value of (Hh2-h3) differentiating Q
with respect variable h and putting it equal to zero we have :
𝑑𝑄 2
= 2𝐻ℎ − 3ℎ = 0 → ℎ = 𝐻
𝑑ℎ 3

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2 2 2 3
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 √
= 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 2𝑔[𝐻 ∗ ( 𝐻) − ( 𝐻) ]
3 3
𝟑
𝑸𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏 ∗ 𝑪𝒅 ∗ 𝑳 ∗ 𝑯𝟐
Example: Determine the discharge over broad crested. Weir of 10 m long and
discharge water with a head of 1.5 m on upstream side. The head on downstream
side of the weir being 1m. Use Cd =0.66
Sol.:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ √2𝑔(𝐻ℎ2 − ℎ3 )

𝑄 = 0.66 ∗ 10 ∗ √19.62 ∗ (1.5(1)2 − (1)3 )

𝑄 = 20.67 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 2
For Maximum discharge ℎ = 𝐻 → ℎ = (1.5) = 1
3 3

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟.

Submerged or Drowned weir

Weir is said to be submerged weir when the water level on the downstream side is
above the top of sill as shown in the figure:-

The discharge over the submerged weir can be determining by dividing it into two
portions between the upstream and downstream.

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Water surface may be treated as free weir and portion between the top of the sill and
the water surface on the downstream side may be treated as a submerged surface.
Therefore:
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
2 3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ (𝐻1 − 𝐻2 )2 + 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐻2 √2𝑔(𝐻1 − 𝐻2 )
3

Example: A submerged weir 6m long has heads of water 50cm and 25cm above the
top of sill on upstream and downstream sides respectively. Find (Q) over weir
assuming Cd=0.6 for free weir and Cd =0.8 for the drowned orifice.
Sol.:

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
2 3
𝑄1 = (0.6) ∗ √19.62 ∗ 6 ∗ (0.5 − 0.25)2 = 1.329 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
𝑄2 = (0.8) ∗ 0.25 ∗ √19.62 ∗ (0.5 − 0.25)=2.658 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 1.329 + 2.58
𝑄 = 3.987 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Over Flow Spillway (Ogee Spillway)

Ogee spillway is on over flow portion using to discharge surplus water from the
reservoir to the downstream side.

The discharge formula of ogee spillway is:-

3
𝑄 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝐿𝑒 ∗ 𝐻𝑒 2
Where:-
𝑄: 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒.
𝐿𝑒 : 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦.
𝐶: 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒.
𝐻𝑒 : 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡.
𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑑 + 𝐻𝑎 .
𝑣𝑎 2
𝐻𝑎 =
2𝑔
𝐻𝑎 : 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑.
𝑄
𝑣𝑎 =
(𝑃 + 𝐻𝑑 ) ∗ 𝐿
For height spillway, the approach velocity is small and Ha it can be neglected.

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𝑃
𝐻𝑎 ≈ 0 → 𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑑 if > 1.33 it is high spillway.
𝐻𝑑

𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿 − 2(𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑛 + 𝐾𝑎 ) ∗ 𝐻𝑒
Where:-
𝐿: 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡.
𝑛: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠.
𝐾𝑝 : 𝑃𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 .
𝐾𝑎 : 𝐴𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 .

Equation of the crest of ogee spillway:-

The general equation of the (D/s) crest shape of ogee spillway is:-
𝑋 𝑚 = 𝐾. 𝐻𝑑 𝑚−𝑙 ∗ 𝑦
For spillway having a vertical (U/s) face, The (D/s) crest shape is given by the
following equation:-
𝑋 1.85 = 2. 𝐻𝑑 0.85 ∗ 𝑦

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For spillway having sloping (U/s) face .the coefficient (k) and (m) are given by the
following:-

Shape of U/s face k m

Vertical 2 1.85
3(V):1(H) 1.925 1.836
3:2 1.939 1.81
3:3 1.873 1.776

The U/s curve of the crest is defined by the following equation:-

0.724 ∗ (𝑥 + 0.27 𝐻𝑑 1.85 )
𝑦= 0.85 + 1.26𝐻𝑑 − 0.4315𝐻𝑑 0.375 ∗ (𝑥 + 0.27 𝐻𝑑 0.625 )
𝐻𝑑
Or it can be determined graphically as following:-
𝑎 = 0.175 𝐻𝑑
𝑏 = 0.282 𝐻𝑑
𝑟1 = 0.5 𝐻𝑑
𝑟2 = 0.2 𝐻𝑑

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Example: Design downstream crest curve of ogee spillway for concrete gravity dam
having downstream face sloping of (0.7:1). The design discharge for the spillway is
8000 m3/sec .The height of spillway crest is kept at level 204 m and the upstream
face is vertical .The average river bed level at the site is 100 m .the spillway length
crest consists of 6 of spans having clear width of 10 m each. The thickness of each
pier is 2.5 m, Kp=0.01, Ka=0.1, C=2.2.
Sol.:

𝑋 𝑚 = 𝐾. 𝐻𝑑 𝑚−𝑙 ∗ 𝑦
Use vertical face:-
𝑋 1.85 = 2𝐻𝑑 0.85 ∗ 𝑦
3
𝑄 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝐿𝑒 ∗ 𝐻𝑒 2
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿 − 2(𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑛 + 𝐾𝑎 ) ∗ 𝐻𝑒
𝐿𝑒 = (6 ∗ 10) − 2(0.01 ∗ 5 + 0.1) ∗ 𝐻𝑒

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𝐿𝑒 = 60 − 0.3𝐻𝑒 − − − − − − − − − −(1)
3
8000 = 2.2(60 − 0.3𝐻𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐻𝑒 2
𝐻𝑒 = 16.3 𝑚
𝑃
𝐼𝑓 > 1.33 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦 , 𝐻𝑎 = 0
𝐻𝑑
𝑃 = 204 − 100 = 104 𝑚
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐻𝑑 = 𝐻𝑒 = 16.3
104
> 1.33
16.3
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑎 , 𝐻𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∴ 𝐻𝑑 = 𝐻𝑒 = 16.3
𝑋 1.85 = 2(16.3)0.85 ∗ 𝑦
𝑋1.85
𝑦=
21.448
𝑑𝑦 1.85 𝑋 0.85
=
𝑑𝑥 21.448
1 1.85𝑋 0.85
=
0.7 21.448
𝑥 = 27.4
X 0 2 4 6 8 10 ……….…………………… 27.4
y 0 0.168 ..….……….……………… 21.3

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Example: A hydraulic jump occurred at the end of ogee spillway. For this jump,
Fr1=11. The crest of this spillway consists 6 spans having clear width of 10m for
each. The thickness of each pier is 2m. The downstream sloping of the spillway is
0.8:1 and the upstream face is vertical. Kp=0.01, Ka=0.1, C=2.2, Hd=He=4.5m
1) Find the crest height of this spillway (P).
2) Find the D/s crest coordinates of the spillway.
3) Find the dissipated energy in the jump.
Sol.:
1) 𝐸0 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 + ∆𝐸
𝑣0 2
≈0
2𝑔
𝐸0 = 𝑦0 = 𝐻𝑑 + 𝑃
𝑣1 2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 +
2𝑔
𝑣1 2
𝐻𝑑 + 𝑃 = 𝑦1 +
2𝑔
𝑣1
𝐹𝑟1 =
√𝑔𝑦1
3
𝑄 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝐿𝑒 ∗ 𝐻𝑒 2
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿 − 2(𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑛 + 𝐾𝑎 ) ∗ 𝐻𝑒
𝐿𝑒 = (6 ∗ 10) − 2(0.01 ∗ 5 + 0.1) ∗ 4.5 = 58.65 𝑚
3
𝑄 = 2.2 ∗ 58.65 ∗ (4.5)2
𝑄 = 1231.7 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄
𝑣1 =
𝐴1
1231.7 1231.7 17.6
𝑣1 = = =
(𝑦1 (60 + 5 ∗ 2) (70𝑦1 ) 𝑦1

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17.6
𝑦1
11 =
√9.81𝑦1
𝑦1 = 0.638
17.59
𝑣1 = = 27.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.638
(27.5)2
4.5 + 𝑃 = 0.638 +
19.62
𝑃 = 34.68 𝑚
2) 𝑋 1.85 = 2𝐻𝑑 0.85 ∗ 𝑦
𝑋 1.85 = 2(4.5)0.85 ∗ 𝑦
𝑋 1.85
𝑦=
7.18
𝑑𝑦 1.85 𝑋 0.85
=
𝑑𝑥 7.18
1 1.85𝑋 0.85
=
0.8 7.18
𝑥 = 6.4
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6.4
y 0 0.13 0.5

3)
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
∆𝐸 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2
𝑦2 1 𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1] , = [√1 + 8(11)2 − 1]
𝑦1 2 0.638 2
𝑦2 = 9.6 𝑚
(9.6 − 0.638)3
∆𝐸 = = 29.3 𝑚
4(0.638)(9.6)

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H.W: A hydraulic jump occurred at the end of ogee spillway. For this jump, 𝐹𝑟1 =
6 and ∆𝐸 = 9𝑚 . The crest of this spillway consists 6 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠 having clear width of
8 𝑚 for each. The thickness of each pier is 1.5 𝑚 and Kp=0.01 ,Ka=0.1 ,C=2.2,
assume Hd = He
1) Find the depth of water before and after the jump (y1 and y2)
2) Find the D/s crest coordinates of this spillway where the upstream and D/s
sloping (0.8:1).

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V-Notch Triangular Weir

For relating small flow the rectangular weir must be very narrow and thus of limited
maximum capacity or else the value of H will be so small that the nappe will not
spring clear, but will cling to the plate for such as case V-notch or triangular weir
has the advantage that it can function for every small flow and also measure
reasonably large flows as well as the vertex angle is usually between (10° 𝑡𝑜 90°).
As shown in the figure

𝑣2
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝐴 ∗ √2𝑔ℎ = ℎ → 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
2𝑔

𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑥𝑑ℎ
∅ 𝑥
tan ( ) =
2 𝐻−ℎ

Subsisting in the equation and introducing a coefficient of discharge (Cd) the

following result is obtained for the entire notch.
∅ 𝐻 1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 (2)√2𝑔 tan( ) ∫ (𝐻 − ℎ)ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
2 0
8 ∅ 5
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 tan( ) 𝐻2
15 2

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Lining of Irrigation Cannels

By lining the canal, we mean that earthen surface channels lined with a stable
lining surface such as concrete, asphalt ,...etc
The seepage losses can be reduced by more than 100 times by the lining the
cannel.
The advantage of lining are described below:
1. Seepage control.
2. Increases the channel capacity.
3. Reduction in maintenance costs.
4. Eliminating of flood damages.
Financial of Justification and Economical Cannel lining
 The engineer is required to produce a good economic justification for the
capital out that is likely to be in rested on lining.
 In considering the economy of canal lining it is necessary to evaluated the
cost and additional and then compare these with the cost of lining.
 Benefit cost ratio can therefore be worked out so as to justify the necessity
of lining.

𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒕
>𝟏
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕

Justification For Lining Existing Cannel

1. Annual Benefits:
If (m) cumecs (m3/sec ) of water is saved by lining the canal annual, the more
saved by lining is :-
𝑚 ∗ 𝑅1
Where:
R1: Rate cost of water.
 Lining will also reduce maintenance cost.

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑅2 .

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 If (P) is the percentage fraction of saving achieved maintenance cost by lining

the canal , then the amount saved it.
𝑃 ∗ 𝑅2
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑚𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2
The value of P is generally taken = 0.4

2. Annual Cost :
 If the capital expenditure required on lining is (C) and the lining has a life of
say (y) years, the annual depreciate change will be (C/y).
 If (r) is the rate of interested (Percent). A locked up capital of (C) would
manually C(r/100) as interest changes and since the capital value of the lining
decreased from (C) to (Zero) in (y) years.
The average annual interest taken as:
𝐶 𝑟
∗
2 100
𝐶 𝐶 𝑟
The total annual cost of lining = + ( )
𝑦 2 100

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡
Benefit cost Ratio =
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
If P= 0.4
Benefit cost ratio =
𝑚𝑅1 + 0.4 𝑅2
𝐶 𝐶 𝑟
+
𝑦 2 (100)
For project justification, benefit cost ratio must be greater than unity.

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Example: An unlined canal giving a seepage loss of 3.3 cumecs per million square
meters of wetted area. If is proposed to lining this canal with 10 cm thick concrete
which cost 180 Rs per 10m2. Given the following data, work out the economics of
lining and benefit cost ratio.
1) Annual revenue per cumecs of water for all crops =3.5 *105 Rs
2) Discharge in channel = 83.5m3/sec.
3) Area of channel cross section =40.8m2.
4) Wetted Perimeter of the channel = 18.8m
5) Wetted Perimeter of lining = 18.5m
6) Annual maintenance cost of unlined canal per 10 m2 = 1 Rs
7) Assume additional suitable data if required.
Sol.:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
∴ 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚 = 18.8 ∗ 1000 = 18,800 𝑚2 .
1) Annual benefit
a- Seepage
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 3.3 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 /𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚2
1,000,000 3.3
18,800 𝑋
18,800 ∗ 3.3
𝑋= = 0.06204 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1,000,000
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠 0.01 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 /𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚2
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 18.5 ∗ 1000 = 18,500 𝑚2
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 =
18,500 ∗ 0.01
𝑋= = 0.000185 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1,000,000
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.06204 − 0.000185 = 0.0618 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
∴ 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙.
0.0618 ∗ 3.5 ∗ 105 𝑅𝑠
𝑋= 3
= 0.216 ∗ 106 𝑅𝑠
1 𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

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b- Saving in maintenance 1 km of canal

∴ 10 𝑚2 = 1 𝑅𝑠
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 18800 𝑚2
∴ 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚
18800
= ∗ 1 = 1880 𝑅𝑠
10
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 40% 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.4 ∗ 1880 = 752 𝑅𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚 = 0.216 ∗ 106 + 752 𝑅𝑠 = 22352 𝑅𝑠
𝑚𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2
2) Annual costs
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 18500 𝑚2
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚 𝑎𝑡 180 𝑅𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 10 𝑚2
18500 ∗ 180 𝑅𝑠
𝑋= = 333000 𝑅𝑠
10
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠 40 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐶 333000
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = = = 8325 𝑅𝑠
𝑦 40
∴ 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 5% 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝐶 𝑟 333000 5
∴ 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = ( )= ( ) = 8325 𝑅𝑠
2 100 2 100
𝐶 𝐶 𝑟
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = + ( )
𝑦 2 100
333000 333000 5
= + ( ) = 16650 𝑅𝑠
40 2 100
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡
∴ 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡
22352
= = 1.34 > 1
16650
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

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Design of Lined Irrigation Channels

Generally, two types of channel stations are adopted:-
1- Triangular channel section for small discharge.
2- Trapezoidal channel section for large discharge.

In order to increase (A/P) ratio, the corners are rounded and attempts are made
to use deeper section by limiting depth.

1- Triangular section:
𝑥
tan 𝜃 = → 𝑥 = 𝑦 cot 𝜃
𝑦
Let central depth= radius of circle.
2𝜃 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝜋𝑦 2 ∗ ) + (2 ∗ 2 cot 𝜃 (𝑦) ∗ (𝑦))
2𝜋

= 𝑦 2 𝜃 + 𝑦 2 cot 𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑦 2 (𝜃 + cot 𝜃)
2𝜃
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) = 2 ∗ 𝑥 + (2𝜋𝑦 ∗ )
2𝜋

2𝑦 cot 𝜃 + 2𝑦𝜃
𝑃 = 2𝑦(cot 𝜃 + 𝜃)
𝐴 𝑦 2 (𝜃+ cot 𝜃)
𝑅= =
𝑃 2𝑦(cot 𝜃+𝜃)
𝑦
𝑅=
2
2- Trapezoidal section:
Area of flow:
𝜃 1
= (𝐵 ∗ 𝑦) + (2 ∗ 𝑦 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ ) + (2 ∗ 2 𝑥𝑦)
2𝜋

𝐴 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝜃 + 𝑦 2 cot 𝜃
𝐴 = 𝑦(𝐵 + 𝑦𝜃 + 𝑦 cot 𝜃)

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𝜃
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ + 2𝑥 → 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦𝜃 + 2𝑦 cot 𝜃
2𝜋
𝐴 𝑦(𝐵 + 𝑦𝜃 + 𝑦 cot 𝜃)
𝑅= =
𝑃 𝐵 + 2𝑦𝜃 + 2𝑦 cot 𝜃

Example: Design a triangular lined channel to carry discharge of 15 m3/sec .the bed
1
slope of this channel is 1 in 9000 and the side slope is 1 (H) to 1(v) and Manning’s
4
(n) is 0.015.
Sol.:
1
tan 𝜃 = , 𝜃 = 38.66°
1.25
𝜋
𝜃= ∗ 38.66 = 0.6747°
180
𝐴 = 𝑦 2 (𝜃 + cot 𝜃)
𝐴 = 𝑦 2 (0.6747 + cot 38.66)
𝐴 = 1.9247𝑦 2 − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑦
𝑅= Sub in (2)
2
1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
1 𝑦 2 1 1
15 = (1.9247𝑦 2 )( )3 ( )2
0.015 2 9000
𝑦 = 2.93 𝑚

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Example: Design concrete trapezoidal lined channel to carry discharge of 350

m3/sec at slope of 1 in 5000 . The side slope of this channel is (1.5 :1) .The value of
(n) for lining material is [Link] the limiting velocity in the channel is 2 m/sec.
Sol.:
1
tan 𝜃 = , 𝜃 = 33.69°
1.5
𝜋
𝜃= ∗ 33.69 = 0.59
180
𝐴 = 𝑦(𝐵 + 𝜃𝑦 + 𝑦 cot 𝜃)
𝐴 = 𝑦(𝐵 + 0.59𝑦 + 𝑦 cot 33.69)
𝐴 = 𝑦(𝐵 + 2.09𝑦) − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑃 = (𝐵 + 2𝑦𝜃 + 2𝑦 cot 𝜃)
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2(0.59)𝑦 + 2(1.5)𝑦
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 4.18 𝑦 − − − − − − − − − (2)
𝑄
But 𝐴 =
𝑣
350
𝐴= = 175 𝑚2 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑖𝑛 (1)
2
175 = 𝑦(𝐵 + 2.09𝑦)
175
𝐵= − 2.09 𝑦 − − − − − − − − − −(3)
𝑦
2 1
1 1 2
1 1
𝑣= 𝑅 𝑆 3 2 →2= 𝑅 (
3 )2 → 𝑅 = 2.79 𝑚
𝑛 0.014 5000

𝐴 175
𝑅= → 2.79 = → 𝑃 = 62.72 𝑚
𝑃 𝑃
175
62.72 = ( − 2.09 𝑦) + 4.18 𝑦 → 𝑦 = 3.2 𝑚
𝑦
175
𝐵= − 2.09 (3.2) → 𝐵 = 48 𝑚
𝑦

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Channel of Composite Roughness

In applying the Manning formula to channel having different (n) values for the
bed and sides, it is necessary to compute an equivalent (n) value to be used for the
whole section. The water area is divided into (N) parts having wetted perimeters P1,
P2, P3,………., PN with associated roughness coefficients n1, n2, n3, ……,nN.

Horton and Einstein assumed that each sub -area has a velocity equal to the mean
velocity.
Thus
3
3 2
∑𝑁 𝑃 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖
2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ] … … … … … … … . (1 − 1)
𝑃

Where:-
ne: equivalent Manning roughness
P: wetted perimeter of the complete section
N: Number of sub section.

Pavlovisky and others equate the sum of the component resisting forces to the
total resisting forces and thus found.
1
𝑁 2
∑𝑖=1(𝑃𝑖 𝑛𝑖 ) 2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ] … … … … … … … . (1 − 2)
𝑃
Lotter applied the Manning equation to sub-areas and equated the sum of
individual discharge equations to total discharge. Thus equivalent roughness
coefficient.
5
𝑃𝑅3
𝑛𝑒 = 5
… … … … … … … . (1 − 3)
𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖 3
∑𝑁
𝑖=1( 𝑛𝑖 )

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Where:-
Ri : Hydraulic radius of any section.
R: Hydraulic radius of the complete section.

Although two methods of computing ne described below could be used for naturals
channels:-
Cox 1977:-
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑛𝑒 = [ ] … … … … … … … . (1 − 4)
𝐴
Where:-
Ai : Area of the sub section.

Other equation is:-

2
3 3
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝐴𝑖
2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ] … … … … … … … . (1 − 5)
𝐴

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Example: Given the channel described in the figure below .Estimate the value of n e
by the first three methods described above:-
Sol.:

Sub Ai Pi 𝑨𝒊 ni
𝑹𝒊 =
section 𝑷𝒊
1 (10*5)/2 = 25 11.2 2.23 0.01 ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
2 15*5 = 75 15 5 0.013 ∑ 𝑝𝑖
3 37.5 7.07 5.3 0.02
4 300 30 10 0.03 537.5
5 37.5 7.07 5.3 0.02 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
87.41
6 50 10 5 0.015
7 12.5 7.07 1.77 0.01 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 6.143 𝑓𝑡
Ʃ
2
537.5 ft 87.41 ft

1- Horton:-
3
3 2
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ]
𝑃

3
3 3 3 3 2
(11.2∗0.01)2 +(15∗0.013)2 +(7.07∗0.02)2 +⋯+(7.07∗0.01)2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ]
87.41

𝑛𝑒 = 0.019

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2- pavlovisky:-
1
𝑁 2
∑𝑖=1(𝑃𝑖 𝑛𝑖 ) 2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ]
𝑃
1
(11.2∗0.01)2 +(15∗0.013)2 +(7.07∗0.02)2 +⋯+(7.07∗0.01)2 2
𝑛𝑒 = [ ]
87.41

𝑛𝑒 = 0.021

3- Lotter-
5
𝑃𝑅 3
𝑛𝑒 = 5
∑𝑁
𝑃𝑖 𝑖3
𝑅
𝑖=1( 𝑛 )
𝑖
5
87.4∗(6.143)3
𝑛𝑒 =
90679
𝑛𝑒 = 0.0198

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