Module 1

Lesson 1

At the end of this lesson ,you are expected to:

a. Define insect/entomology and other fields of entomology;

Introduction to Entomology & Agricultural Impact

Curiosity alone as to the identities and lifestyles of the fellow inhabitants of our
planet justifies the study of insects. Some of us have used insects as totems and symbols
in spiritual life, and we portray them in art and music. If we consider economic factors,
the effects of insects are enormous. Few human societies lack honey, which is provided
by bees (or specialized ants). Insects pollinate our crops. Many insects share our houses,
agriculture and food stores. Others live on us, on our domestic pets or our livestock, and
more visit to feed on us, where they may transmit disease. Clearly, we should understand
these pervasive animals.( The Insects: An Outline of Entomology, Fifth Edition. P.J.
Gullan and P.S. Cranston.)

Many insects are beneficial, contributing to ecosystems through nutrient recycling,

plant pollination (like honeybees), and serving as food for other animals. Other insects
are considered agricultural pests because they cause economic or aesthetic damage to
crops, fiber crops, and livestock. Understanding insects helps in developing strategies for
crop protection to prevent losses and maintain a stable global food supply.

WHAT IS ENTOMOLOGY?

Entomology is the study of insects. Entomologists are the people who study
insects, and observe, collect, rear and experiment with insects. Research undertaken by
entomologists covers the total range of biological disciplines, including evolution, ecology,
behaviour, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics. The unifying feature is that
the study organisms are insects. Biologists work with insects for many reasons: ease of
culturing in a laboratory, rapid population turnover, and availability of many individuals
are important factors. The minimal ethical concerns regarding responsible experimental
use of insects, as compared with vertebrates, are a significant consideration.

Entomology came from the ancient Greek word “entomon”, meaning ‘insect’, and
“logia”, meaning ‘study of’. It is a scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In this
topic we will determine the development of entomology in the Philippines history and who
are the various key person.

Specialized Fields in Entomology

• Insect Morphology – deals with the study of comparative anatomy and the development
of an insect’s form and structure

• Insect Physiology – science which deals with the study of the physical and chemical
changes in the insect body or the functions of the forms and structures.
 • Insect Ecology – study of insect which deals with the interrelationship to its environment

• Insect Toxicology – deals on the study of how chemical drugs in agriculture and medical
affect the life of insects.

• Forest Entomology – deals with the study on the insect communities in the forest
ecosystem

• Medical Entomology – deals with the study of insects that parasitize man and
domesticated animals, those that serve as vector of human and animal diseases

• Economic Entomology – the part of the science that deals with the species that is
actually or potentially important in beneficial or injurious manner

Lesson 2

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

[Link] the history and development of Entomology in the Philippines;

[Link] the milestone of Entomology in the Philippines

The development of Philippine Entomology

The development of Philippine Entomology was recorded (in 1981) by the late Dr.
Bernardo P. Gabriel (Philippine Entomologist vol. 4(6): 495-501), a distinguished
professor of the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of the
Philippines at Los Baños.

His accounts cover the period of the first recognizable written record of the Philippine
insect to the 70’s. He subdivided this span of time into 5, namely:

 Spanish Period (1521 – 1899: 6th –19th Century)

 Early American Occupation (1900 – 1920)
 Rise of the Filipino Entomologists (1922 –1940)
 War Setback and Rebuilding (1941 – 1960)
 Developments and Directions in the Sixties and Seventies (1961 – 1979).

Spanish Period (1521 – 1899: 6th –19th Century)

Lesson 3

At the end of this lesson ,you are expected to:

a. Discuss the characteristics and other relatives of class insect;

b. Know the importance on insects to human and others;
c. Illustrate and describe the different types of insect’s antennae, mouthparts,legs
and wings;

IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS

1. Their extreme importance from human point of view is that……

a. They are major rivals for domination

• Destroy our food both before and after harvest

• Damage the wooden structures of our houses

• Transmit causal organisms of our most devastating diseases

• Direct attacks cause irritation, blood loss and even death

b. Also, insects are vital to our survival on earth

• Pollinate our crops

 • Control many of our pests

• Return of our waste to the soil

• Source of honey, beeswax, silk, shellac, cochineal dye

• Serve as food for man and as feed to domesticated animals

2. Their tremendous success relative to the organisms other than humans in

apparent in the

a. Number of extant species and their abundance

• 1-3 M identified species (general estimate is 750,000 species)
• Outnumber all other species of animals and all species of plants combined
• Most impressive example of insect abundance – locust swarms (several
billions consume 3,000 tons of food daily)
• With regards span of geologic time traversed by group of organisms in
evolution, insects are relatively ancient, i.e. collembola is represented in
Devonian era (400 M years ago), which is the same as the first vertebrates,
while mammals appeared only 230 M years ago; even cockroaches,
grasshopper and dragonflies occurred in the Carboniferous Era which is at
least 300 M years ago; thus insects, ruled the air for 100 M years (i.e. as the
only flying animals)
b. Adaptability to various environmental conditions: they are organisms with
extreme structural and functional diversity

DISTIGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS

- Having distinguishing characteristics

1. Three well-defined body regions or tagmata, i.e. head, thorax, and abdomen

2. Three pairs of legs in adult stage

3. Commonly one or two pairs of wings, if any

4. Single pair of segmented antenna on the head

5. 2 kinds of eyes (compound and simple

 GENERAL STRUCTURES OF AN INSECTS

The Insect’s Head

 In most insects, the head capsule houses the brain, a mouth opening, mouthparts used for
ingestion of food, and major sense organs (including antennae, compound eyes and ocelli)
 Embryological evidence suggests that the first six body segments (three pre oral and three
pot-oral) of a primitive ancestor may have fused to form the head capsule of most present-
day insects.
 The surface of the head is divided into regions (sclerites) by a pattern of shallow grooves
(sutures).
 The uppermost sclerite (dorsal surface) of the head capsule is known as the vertex.
 A coronal suture usually runs along the midline of the vertex and splits into two frontal
sutures as it extends downward across the front of the head capsule.
 The triangular sclerite that lies between these frontal sutures is called frons. The epistomal
suture is a deep groove that separates the base of the frons from the clypeus, a rectangular
sclerite on the lower front margin of the head capsule.
 The genae (“cheeks”) are lateral sclerites that lie behind the frontal sutures on each side of
the head. Below each gena there may be another sclerite (the subgena), separated from the
 gena by a subgenal suture. A pair of compound eyes, sockets for two antennae, and one or
more ocelli (simple eyes) also may be found on the front, top, or sides of an insect’s head.
 Near the back of the head, an occipital suture circumscribes the head capsule at the
posterior margin of the vertex and genae.
 Just behind the occipital suture lie the occiput and postgenae, tiny sclerites that ae probably
remnants of the fifth primitive segment that fused to form the insect’s head.
 At the posterior-most margin of the head, a vestige of the sixth primitive segment is marked
by a faint post-occipital suture and a thin, band-like sclerite (the post occiput) that adjoins
the neck membrane.
 The insect’s neck is known as the cervix. This is a membranous area that allows considerable
freedom of movement for protraction and retraction of the insect’s head.
Note: insects do not breath through their mouths, but through their thoracic and abdominal
spiracles.

Types of Insect Heads

Based on the inclination of long axis of the head and orientation of mouthparts there are
three types of insect heads.

1. HYPOGNATHOUS (Hypo – below; gnathous – jaw) This type is also called orthopteroid
type. The long axis of the head is vertical. It is at right angles to the long axis of the body.
Mouth parts are ventrally placed and project downwards.

2. PROGNATHOUS (Pro – infront; gnathous – jaw) This type os also called coleopteroid
type. The long axis of the head is horizontal. It is in line with the long axis of the body. Mouth
parts are directed foreward. Eg: Ground beetles.
3. OPISTHOGNATHOUS (Opistho – behind; gnathous – jaw) This type is also called
hemipteroid type or opisthorhychous. Head is deflexed. Mouth parts are directed backwards
and held in between the fore legs. Eg: Stink bug.

Eyes

Insects have two kinds of eyes:

 The compound eyes and the simple eyes or ocelli (singular, ocellus).
 Three ocelli, typically arranged in an isosceles triangle on the vertex, are present in
so many insects. Each lateral (or posterior) ocellus has a single lens, but differs from
an ommatidium of a compound eye in that the lens covers a number of internal eye
elements.
 Vision in insects is based on the Theory of Mosaic Vision. Each facet of the
compound eye accommodates only that part of the image projected at a specified
angle from the object. The entire vision depends on a simultaneous functioning of all
facets in which have missing is perceived. If some of these facets are damaged, the
object as seen by the

Antennae

 The antennae are a pair of sense organs located near the front of an insect’s
head capsule.
 Although commonly called “feelers” the antennae are much more than just tactile
receptors.
 They are usually covered with olfactory receptors that can detect odor
molecules in the air (the sense of smell). Many insects also use their antennae
as humidity sensors, to detect changes in the concentration of water vapor.
Mosquitoes detect sounds with their antennae, and many flies use theirs to
gauge air speed while they are in flight.
 Although antennae vary widely in shape and function, all of them can be divided
into three basic parts:
1. Scape – the basal segment that articulates with the head capsule.
2. Pedicel – the second antennal segment; nearly always contain a sensory
organ called Johnston organ which respond to the movement of the distal part of
the antennae relative to the pedicel.
3. Flagellum or clavola – all the remaining “segments” (individually called
flagellomeres); multisegmented but may be reduced or variously modified.
TYPES OF ANTENNAE, MOUTHPARTS, LEGS AND WINGS
Mouthparts
 Mouthparts are some of the distinctive features
of insects and their structure tells a great deal
about the feeding habits of a species.
 Mouthparts are greatly varied, but their
primitive form include a labrum (upper lip), a
pair of chewing mandibles (jaws), a pair of
maxillae (second jaws), and a labium (lower lip).
These structures surround the mouth and form
the pre oral cavity. In addition, a central tongue-
 like hypopharynx drops from the membranous floor of the cranium, behind the mouth,
and bears the opening of the salivary ducts.

The general description of the structures are based on the mouthparts adapted for biting and
chewing as follows:

 The Labrum is normally a movable plate attached to the lower margin of the clypeus with its
outer surface generally strongly sclerotized and its distal margin sharply defined. The interior
or ventral surface of the labrum, called epipharynx, is membranous and equipped with small
tactile hairs and taste organs.
 The mandibles are a pair of strongly sclerotized, unsegmented jaws situated immediately
posterior to the labrum. The mandibles move sideways and are operated by the most
powerful muscles in the head. The mandibles are the principal feeding organs, being used
primitively to bite off and chew food.

 The maxillae are paired segmented structures, lying posteroventral to the mandibles and
anterodorsal to the labium. The basal segment, the cardo, is attached to the head
proximately and to a longer 2nd segment, the stipes, distally. The stipes bears lobes, the
lateral galea and the mesal lacinia. Attached laterally to the distal part of the stipes is the
usually 1-7 segmented maxillary palps or palpus. Sometimes, the galea is 2-segmented and
the lacinia may be spined or toothed on its mesal border.
 The maxillae serve as accessory jaws. The laciniae help to hold the food when the mandibles
are extended and also assist in mastication. The galea and palp assist in selecting the food by
touch and taste.

 The labium consists of the fused 2nd maxillae. It is attached to the ventral surface of the
cranium, bilaterally symmetrical and divided into the postmentum proximally; prementum
more distally; 2 distal processes articulated to the prementum on each side, the glossa
mesally and paraglossa laterally; and a pair of 1-4 segmented labial palps arising from a
lateral part of the prementum which is sometimes differentiated as the palpiger. When the
prementum is divided transversely into 2 parts, the distal portion bearing the glossae and
paraglossae is known as the ligula.
 The hypopharynx is a median, unpaired, tongue-like organ projecting forward from the back
of the pre-oral cavity and dividing it into a dorsal cibarium serving as a food pouch, and a
 ventral salivarium where the salivary ducts open. The primitive hypopharynx has an
elaborate complement of sclerites and bear a pair of lateral lobes called superlinguae.

The mouthparts in insects are variously modified. In addition to the chewing type of mouthparts,
insects have types that include piercing-sucking, rasping sucking, siphoning, sponging and
chewing lapping. The type of mouthparts an insect possesses determines how it feed and what
sort of damage it inflicts to its host.

Piercing-sucking mouthparts

 are very common among insects.

 The mouthparts are modified to pierce the epidermis of plants of the skin of animals
and to suck up sap or blood.
 This type is characterized by the presence of a tubular, usually jointed beak enclosing
several piercing-like stylets.

In plant feeders such as the aphids and whiteflies (homoptera) the piercing-sucking needle is formed
from 4 hair-like stylets fitted closely together. The outer stylets are derived from mandibles and the
inner ones from the maxillae. The maxillary stylets are double-grooved on the inner side. When held
together, they form 2 channels. One of the channels serve as passage of saliva into the plant to
facilitate food flow and digestion. The other channel is used for the uptake of plant juices. The
labium forms a protective sheath for the stylets.
In blood-feeding insects like mosquitoes (Diptera) there are 6 stylets. The the host’s skine stylets are
formed from the mandibles and maxillae and an additional pair is modified from the hypopharynx
and labrum-epipharynx which forms a food channel. The stylets are enclosed by a protective sheath
formed from an elongated labium. The back of the food channel is closed by the hypopharynx with
its salivary duct which carries saliva containing enzymes and anticoagulants that reduce blood
clotting in the host and improve the flow of blood into the mosquito. The maxillary and mandibular
stylets work together as a needle to penetrate the host’s skin.

Rasping-sucking mouthparts
 characterized as a short, stout, assymetrical conical structure located ventrally at the rear
of the head, are a primitive form of the piercing-sucking type.
 These are found in thrips (Thysanoptera).
 The mouthparts have a cone-shaped beak formed from the clypeus, labrum, parts of the
maxillae and the labium.
 The beak contains the maxillae hypopharynx and the left mandible which together from a
stylet.
 The thrips use the beak to make superficial on the host tissues and take up liquid food
through the stylet.

Siphoning mouthparts
  Are a highly specialized type, modified for the uptake of flower nectar and other liquids.
This type is found in practically all adult moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera).
 The galea of the maxillae are greatly elongated and joined to form a slender hollow tube
called proboscis through which food passes and held in coiled-spring fashion when not in
use.
 The proboscis is not a capable of piercing tissues except in rare instances.
 Feeding is accomplished by uncoiling the tube and protecting its tip into exposed liquid
such as nectar and then sucking up through the food channel running full length through
the proboscis.

Sponging type of mouthparts

 The mouthparts of a common housefly represent which are also highly specialized
structures.
 The mandibles and the maxillae are nonfunctional and the remaining parts from a proboscis
whose end is expanded into a fleshy lobe with a series of furrows or tiny channels called
labella.
 Liquid food is “mopped up” by the capillary action of the fleshy lobe acting like a sponge.
 If food is not liquid, salivary secretions through the mouthparts make it so.

Chewing-lapping mouthparts

 Like in the bees and wasps (hymenoptera), the mandibles and the labrum are similar to the
chewing type and are used for grasping prey, molding wax and manipulating nest materials.
 The maxillae and the labium developed into a series of flattened elongated structure
forming a sort a lapping tongue through which saliva is discharged and nectar is drawn up as
the bee probe deep into the blossoms.

THORAX

Thorax is the middle region of the insect body which is connected from the head by a
flexible membranous neck (cervix). It contains 3 distinct segments: prothorax, mesothorax
and metathorax. Each thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed legs, and in most adult
insects the mesothorax and metathorax each have a pair of wings and each thoracic
segment is composed of hardened plates that give it rigidity, such as: notum, sternum and
pleuron.
a. notum – upper plate
b. sternum – lower plate
c. pleuron – side/lateral plate
LOCOMOTORY APPENDAGES

C.1 Legs – are articulated appendages comprising five segments.

These are:
a. Coxa – the proximal segment that is usually short and stout
b. Trochanter – connects the coax with the femur
 Femur – the stoutest and sometime the largest segment of the leg in some
instances, it is armed with strong spines
d. Tibia – is often a long, slender structure with downward-pointing
spines that aid in climbing.
e. Tarsus – usually made up of several subsegments called tarsomeres, terminate in a
pretarsus.
 pretarsus usually include in a pair of claws, between the claw
for adhesion purposes is called the arolium
 if pad is present at the base of its claw, the pads are called pulvilli
 TYPES OF INSECT LEGS

1. Raptorial legs – grasping forelegs of preying mantis

2. Cursorial legs – running legs of roaches

3. Fossorial legs – digging forelegs of mole crickets

4. Saltatorial legs – jumping hindlegs of grasshoppers and fleas

5. Natatorial legs – swimming legs of aquatic insects

6. pollen basket for gathering pollen – hindlegs of honeybees

7. clinging legs of lice

8. clasping legs of aquatic beetles

WINGS - Insect wings show much diversity, varying in shape, texture, and coloration.
Some specific types of wings are used to identify insect orders, such as:
1. Elytra – forewing of beetles (Coleoptera) -are thick and hard with uniform texture which
is used to protect the soft abdomen
2. Hemelytra – forewing of true bugs (Hemiptera) are a combination of thick and soft ,
flexible and almost transparent apex or posterior part.
3. Fringed type – wings of thrips ( Thysanoptera), are hair-like along the margins of the
central using structure.
4. Membranous type – wings of caddisflies (Trichoptera), are soft, flexible, translucent or
transparent with prominent wing viens.
5. Halteres – hindwings of flies and mosquitoes (Diptera), are small knob-like structures
which are use for balancing instead of flight.
6. Tegmina – forewing of grasshoppers, roaches (Orthoptera) - are leathery frontwings
which serves to protect the membranous hindwings and soft
abdomen.
 Some insects like male crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) are able to make
sounds with the wings by rubbing either – of the two mesothoracic wings together
or by rubbing the primary wings to the hindlegs.
It is the third body region of an insect and usually the largest part especially among females
is called ABDOMEN. It is primarily for reproduction, excretion and digestion because the
abdomen bears the genitalia, the anus, outwardly, and the digestive system inside,
respectively. In some insects such as bees and wasps, the distal end of the abdomen is
specialized into a short needle-like extension for stinging their enemies.

In case of honeybees, the sting left on the skin of their victim is like a syringe with irritating
substances. Typically, abdomen is composed of 11 segments however the last segment is
usually reduced and is represented only by appendages. The first eight segments are
generally similar in structures / architecture, which bears a pair of laterally located spiracles.
The Abdomen has other Important Parts such as; spiracles, tympanum and cerci. These are
external openings of the respiratory system found along the side of the thorax and the
abdomen is called Spiracles. The main auditory organ of an insect is called the Tympanum
or “ear”.

This is located on the first abdominal tergite in grasshoppers but may be found elsewhere in
the body of other insects while slender, pointed structures found on the eleventh segment of
the abdomen is also called Cerci. These are inconspicuous in some insects such as locust
but are long and many-jointed in silverfish and mayfly. For the case of Earwigs, cerci are
modified into forcep-like structure.
The change in form during the development period after the embryonic development is
called Metamorphosis. The process by which an insect shed off old skin (cuticle) to provide
enough space to grow is called Ecdysis/Molting. Most insects molts at least three or four
times during normal development. The Exuviae (old skin or cuticle) left after molting. The
Stadium (the total period between any two molts) while Instar is the term for the actual insect
during a stadium. Thus, from time of hatching until the first molt is the first stadium. Any
individual in this period of change is the first instar.

There are types of metamorphosis of an insect, the ametabolous (no metamorphosis) and
metabolous. Ametabolous/No metamorphosis is a type of metamorphosis where there is no
change in the appearance of the young compared to the adult, except in size and
development of reproductive structures or genitalia. Stages of this type are egg, young,
adult. Examples are: Collembola, Protura, Diplura and Thysanura. Metabolous is a type of
metamorphosis that shows distict changes during growth and development. There are three
(3) types of it: (1) Paurometabolous is type of metabolous simple, gradual or direct
metamorphosis in which the immatures (nymph) resemble the parent (adult) except size,
wings and genitalia development. Example are: hemiplera, isoptera, hemoptera, orthoptera,
thysanoptera, dermaptera, etc. (2) Hemimetabolous is the second type of metabolous having
incomplete metamorphosis in which accessory organs like gills are present in immature
which is called naiads. Naiads looks differently from adults which have wings and terrestial.
Naiads and adults are predatory but feed on different foods. Stages are egg, naiad adult.
Examples are: Odonata, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and (3) Holometabolous is the third
type of metabolous having complete metamorphosis where all stages differ in appearance.
The stages are egg, larva, pupa, adult. Examples are: Opidoptera, Coleoptera,
Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, Diptera, etc.

Stages in Metamorphosis

1. Eggs – all insects produce from eggs, which consists of the following:

a. Yolk – supplies nourishment to the developing egg.

b. Vitelline membrane – a sheath that covers the yolk.

c. Chorion – or shell which gives protection to the egg.

d. Microphyle – consists of one or more very minute openings thru which the

male sperm enters and fertilization takes place.

e. Operculum – a lid or cap thru which the young escape

2. Larva – the young proceeding from the egg

- Characterized as the following feeding and developing stage that usually

cover the longest period in the life cycle.

- The most damaging stage to the crop.

Types of larvae

There are five types of insect larvae that includes; Eruciform (1) is a caterpillar-like,
the body cylindrical, the head well develop but with very short antennae, with thoracic legs

and abdominal prolegs. Examples are: lepidoptera, mecoptera and some hymenoptera.

Scarabeiform (2) a grub-like usually curved, the head well developed, with thoracic legs but

no abdominal prolegs, relatively sluggish and inactive. Examples are: Coleoptera

(Scurabiade). Campodeiform (3) resembling bristle tails in the genus Campodea, body

elongated and somewhat flatters, cerci and antennae usually well developed, and thoracic

legs active and predaceous. Examples are: Neuroptera, coleoptera (Cocconelidae).

Elateriform (4) a wireworm-like, body elongated, cylindrical and hard shelled, the legs short

and the body bristles reduced. Examples are: Coleoptera (Elateridae). Vermiform (5) is a

maggot-like, body elongated and wormlike, legless, with or without well-developed head.

Examples are: Diptera, Siphonaptera, most Hymenoptera and in some Coleoptera.

3. Nymphs – the active developing stage in paurometabolous insects

4. Pupa – the resting (inactive/quiescent) or reorganization stage of homometabolous

insects.

Types of Pupa

o Obtect – With the appendages more or less glued to the body. -

Examples are Lepidoptera and some Diptera (Nematocera). -

The pupa in many Lepidoptera is covered by a silken cocoon formed by the larva before it

molts to the pupal stage.

o Exarate - With the appendages free and not glued to the body. -

Such pupa looks much like a pale, mummified adult, and is usually not covered by a

cocoon. - Occurs in most insects except lepidoptera and some diptera.

o Coarctate – Essentially like an exarate pupa, but remaining covered by the hardened

exuviae of the next to the last larval instar, which is called a puparium example in Diptera

5. Adult or imago – the final instar in the development of an insect in which all of the external

characteristics are well defined. - The internal systems fully matured or complete.

Reproduction in insects Insects reproduce in several ways:

1. Bisexual reproduction
 both males and females are required.
 Eggs will develop if fertilized by sperm.
 Most insects reproduce this way.
2. Parthenogenesis
 only females are required to reproduce the young
  The eggs will develop without fertilization (example aphids in the tropics)
 In temperate ares, aphids undergo bisexual reproduction sometime in the year
and parthenogenesis during summer months.
3. Paedogenesis
 is a special type or an exceptional type of reproduction where the larvae of some
hymenopterans are capable of reproducing.
 Most insects produce eggs and are called oviparous, the eggs are laid and left
unattended to hatch.
 Some insects care or watch over their eggs against parasites and predators
(example is rice black bug where she sit over the egg).
 Other insects produce live young and are called viviparous insects. Aphids during the
parthenogenesis stage in the tropics are viviparous.

Lesson 4

INSECT SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

At the end of this lesson ,you are expected to:

a. Illustrate the types and process of insect metamorphosis;
b. Learn the proper taxonomy and classification of insect

Definition of Terms:

Classification – ordering of an organism into a hierarchy of categories.

Nomenclature – Naming of organisms (“Nomen” – name; “calare” – to call)
Identification – major application of classification.
Keys - comprise a sequence of paired statements and questions that allow the user to
eliminate alternative options and eventually associate the unknown specimens with a
name.
Taxonomy – involves the theoretical basis for classification and the study of classification
schemes.
The classification of the Animal Kingdom is hierarchial.
Animals (including the insects)therefore are classified within a framework of standard
categories in descending order of rank as presented below:

At the end of these lesson

a. Define the insect systematics and taxonomy;
b. Know and identify the different insect orders;
Taxonomy
• It involves the accurate naming
• identification of species
Systematics
• the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and all
relationships among them (Mayr and Ashlock, 1991)

An example of the major categories for the corn aphid shows the following classification:
 • The system of binomial nomenclature
• Carolus Linnaeus
• Linnaeus first used the system in 1758
• Species – is the basic category of classification

Three (3) points to consider before a natural insect population can be regarded as
species:
1. Fundamentally similar in structure
2. Capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
3. Reproductively isolated from other groups.

Nomenclature - - -
• animals bear two names, scientific and common
• scientific name is used by scientists universally
• common names are vernacular names and often less precise than scientific names
Scientific Nomenclature - - - - - - -
• the scientific naming of animals adopt certain rules governed by the International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).
• The scientific name of a species is binomial consisting of the genus and the specific
name. Example: Musca domestica Linn
• The third name in the scientific name is the subspecies (a group of individual of
species with different body form, color and geographical distribution) which is
trinomial. Example: Musca domestica vicina (Macquart).
• Scientific names are always printed in italics and bears name of the author who
described the species or subspecies
• The names of the genera and higher categories always begin in capital letter, but the
species and subspecies names do not.
• If the name of the author is in parenthesis, it means he described the species in
some other genus that the one in which it now belongs.
• The names of categories from tribe to superfamily bear standard endings to
recognize them into particular categories, such as:

Example: Chalcid Wasp

Superfamily – ends in oidea (Chalcidoidea)

Family - ends in idea (Chalcididae)

Subfamily- ends in inae (Chalcidinae)

Tribe - ends in ini (Chalcidini)

Classification of the Insecta

The class Insecta is divided into orders on the basis of the structure of the wings and
mouthparts, the metamorphosis and on various other characteristics.

Class Insecta

Subclass Apterygota – primitively wingless insects

Order

1. Protura – proturans

2. Collembola – springtails

3. Diplura – diplurans

4. Thysanura – bristletails, silverfish

Subclass Pterygota – winged and secondarily wingless insects

Division Exopterygota – simple body change during growth (incomplete metamorphosis)

5. Ephmeroptera – mayflies (“Ephemero” – short-lived or for a day; “ptera” – with wings)

6. Odonata – dragonflies and damselflies (“Odon” – tooth)

7. Plecoptera – stoneflies (“Pleco” – folded or plaited)

8. Dermaptera – earwigs (“Derma” – skin)

9. Orthoptera – grasshoppers, crickets, roaches, mantids, walking sticks (“Ortho” –

straight)

10. Isoptera – termites (“Iso” – equal)

11. Embioptera – webspiner (“Embio” – lively)

12. Zoraptera – zorapterans (“zor” – pure; “aptera” – wingless)

13. Psocoptera – psocids (“Psoco” – rub small)

14. Mallophaga – chewing lice (“mallo” – wool; “phaga” – to eat)

15. Anoplura - sucking lice (“anol” – unarmed)

16. Thysanoptera – thrips (“Thysano” – fringe)

17. Hemiptera – bugs (“Hemi”- half)

18. Homoptera – aphids, scale insects, hoppers, cicadas, pyllids, whiteflies (“Homo” –

alike, uniform)

Division Endopterygota – complex body change during growth (complete metamorphosis)

19. Neuroptera – alderflies, antlions, dobsonflies, fishflies, lacewings, snakeflies, owlflies

(“Neuro” – nerve)

20. Coleoptera – beetles (“Coleo” – sheath)

21. Strepsiptera – twisted-winged parasites (“Strepsi” – twisted)

22. Mecoptera – scorpionflies

23. Trichoptera – caddisflies (“Tricho” – hair)

24. Lepidoptera – moths and butterflies (“Lepido”- scale)

25. Diptera – flies (“Di” – two)

26. Siphonaptera – fleas (“Siphon” – tube; “aptera” – wingless)

27. Hymenoptera – ants, bees, wasps, sawflies (“Hymeno” – membrane)

Morphological Characteristics used to distinguished insect orders

1. Order Protura – contains microscopic and elongated insects -

 have piercing- mouthparts -

 no antennae, cerci and compound eyes and metamorphosis

2. Order Diplura – contains microscopic, wingless and elongated insects -

 have cerci and chewing mouthparts -

 no compound eyes and metamorphosis

3. Order Thysanura – are small to moderate-sized insects, primitively wingless,

elongated with three tail-like filaments

 their bodies are covered with gray silvery scales

 no metamorphosis

4. Order Collembola – are microscopic, primitively wingless with six (6) segmented

abdomen

 presense of abdominal forked or furcula

 no metamorphosis

5. Order Ephemeroptera – are small to moderate-sized with four delicate membranous

wings

 presence of setaceous antennae and long multi-segmented cerci

 short-lived, most die in 1-2 days
 mating takes place in swarms; males die shortly after mating and female dies
after laying eggs in water

6. Order Odonata – are quite large insects with large compound eyes, strong

chewing mouthparts, setaceous antennae

  elongated abdomen with small cerci
 have 2 suborders

I. suborder Anisoptera – dragonflies (wings extended horizontally when at rest)

II. suborder Zygoptera – damselflies (wings held vertically above the abdomen when at rest

7. Order Orthoptera – moderate to large insects (over 1 foot long)

 forewings are leathery (tegmen) whereas hindwings are membranous

 have chewing mouthparts and most of them are phytophagous

8. Order Isoptera – also known as white ants, soft-bodied, small to medium sized with

winged and wingless form

 winged forms have four(4) membranous wings that are exactly alike
 prognathous head, chewing mouthparts and moniliform antennae.

9. Order Plecoptera – are moderate-sized insects

 naiads are abundant under stones in creeks or streams

 plaited wings which refer tot eh hindwings which are larger than the frontwings and
folded in plait above the abdomen.
 Long filiform antennae, chewing mouthparts and long and multisegmented cerci

10. Order Embioptera – are small insects with depressed and elongated body

 have four membranous wigs with foretarsi enlarged and with silk gland

11. Order Psocoptera – are small insects with filiform and long antennae

 hindwings are smaller than frontwings that held rooflike over their body when at rest
 with chewing mouthparts

12. Order Dermaptera – elongated and moderately sized insects with four wings

 forewings are very small and leathery

 hindwings are folded lengthwise and crosswise
 forcep-like cerci are located at the tip of the abdomen forming like a pair of
 scissor.
 Many earwigs are predatory to major pests such as corn borer

13. Order Mallophaga – are small (1.5 mm), wingless insects whose head is broader than

the thorax

 have chewing mouthparts, prominent claws and reduced eyes with no ocelli
 parasitic on birds by feeding on feathers and dried blood.

14. Order Anoplura – are small, wingless insects with dorsal spiracles

 dorsoventrally flattened bodies

 live as ectoparasites on bodies of mammals
 legs are adapted for clinging on hairs
 eggs are called nits attached singly on hair
  life cycle from egg to adult is about 3 weeks
 well-fed adult lice may live for more than a month

15. Order Thysanoptera – extremely elongated and minute insects

 rasping-sucking mouthparts with conical beak

 four membranous wings are fringed with long hair

16. Order Hemiptera – are small to moderate-sized insects with four wings

 frontwings or hemelytra have a thickened and leathery basal part while the
apical portion is membranous
 hindwings are entirely membranous
 piercing-sucking mouthparts arise from the anterior end of the head extend ventrally,
sometimes reaching the base of the hindlegs

17. Order Homoptera – are small with four membranous or leathery wings sloping at the

sides of the body when at rest

 piercing-sucking mouthparts arise from the posterior side of the head

somewhat near the first pair of legs
 many species are transmitters or vectors of plant viruses and other plant
disease causing agents.

18. Order Coleoptera – most numerous which constitute 40% of the total number of

known insects.

 presence of hard or thickened front pair of wings called elytra

 membranous hindwings are used for flight
 have chewing mouthparts with well developed mandibles.

19. Order Lepidoptera – constitute the most attractive and colorful groups of insects

 adults have siphoning mouthparts while larvae (caterpillar) have chewing type
 mouths and feed on roots, stems, and leaves of plants
 scaly wings

20. Order Diptera – contains a pair of functional membranous forewings

 hindwings are modified into slender, knob-like structure called halteres used
for balancing instead of flight.
 Mouthparts varied from sponging type (housefly) to cutting-sponging type (
horseflies, deerflies)

21. Order Hymenoptera – contains most of the beneficial insects

 both wings are membranous, the smaller hindwings are interlocked with the
larger forewings by means of a hook-like structure called hamuli
 have chewing-lapping type of mouthparts
 parthenogenesis is common
 ovipositor is adapted for sawing, piercing or stinging

22. Order Siphonaptera – are small, wingless and body compressed laterally
  hindlegs are enlarged adapted for jumping
 piercing-sucking mouthparts
 ectoparasites (blood suckers) of mammals including human

23. Order Neuroptera – are small to medium sized insects with four membranous wings

with numerous veins and cross veins

 with chewing type of mouthparts

 predatory and some species (lacewings) are used to control insect pests

24. Order Mecoptera – medium-sized with four membranous wings

 head is modified into beak with chewing mouthparts

 predatory insects

25. Order Trichoptera – are small to medium-sized with four membranous wings covered

with hair

 adult mouthparts are not developed

26. Order Strepsiptera – are very small endoparasitic insects, which considered true

parasites

 only males have wings

 forewings are reduced to club-shaped appendages
 hindwings are fan shaped and are large compared to the body