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Chapter 3.0
Data Collection Methods
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Data Collection Methods
• Data collection is the process of gathering information for analysis,
decision-making, and research purposes. The method chosen
depends on the nature of the data (quantitative or qualitative),
research objectives, and available resources. Below are common data
collection methods:
• Primary Data Collection
• These involve gathering original data directly from sources.
• Secondary Data Collection
• These involve using already existing data from various sources.
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Primary Data Collection
• a. Surveys & Questionnaires
• Uses structured or semi-structured questions. Can be conducted online, via phone,
or in person.
• Example: Customer feedback forms.
• Pros: Cost-effective, scalable, and standardized responses.
• Cons: Low response rates, potential bias in responses.
• b. Interviews
• Involves direct interaction with respondents. Can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured.
• Example: Job interviews, investigative research.
• Pros: Detailed insights, allows clarifications.
• Cons: Time-consuming, interviewer bias.
• c. Observations
• Collects data by observing behaviors, events, or conditions. Can be direct (watching
without interference) or participatory (researcher engages in the activity).
• Example: Monitoring customer behavior in a store.
• Pros: Natural data collection, no reliance on self-reporting.
• Cons: Subjective interpretation, limited scope.
• d. Experiments
• Conducted under controlled conditions to test hypotheses.
• Example: A/B testing in marketing.
• Pros: Establishes causality, highly controlled.
• Cons: Expensive, may not reflect real-world scenarios.
• e. Focus Groups
• A small group discussion guided by a moderator.
• Example: Brand perception research.
• Pros: Rich qualitative data, diverse viewpoints.
• Cons: Group dynamics may influence responses, difficult to generalize.
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Secondary Data Collection Methods
• a. Literature Review & Published Sources
• Uses books, journals, newspapers, and reports.
• Example: Academic research papers.
• Pros: Time-efficient, cost-effective.
• Cons: May be outdated, potential for bias.
• b. Government & Institutional Reports
• Includes census data, economic reports, etc.
• Example: World Bank statistics, national census reports.
• Pros: Reliable, large datasets.
• Cons: Limited customization, possible data gaps.
• c. Online Databases & Digital Records
• Uses sources like Google Scholar, Statista, and company reports.
• Example: Analyzing industry trends from market research databases.
• Pros: Easy access, vast information.
• Cons: Requires verification, some sources may have restricted access.
• d. Internal Company Data
• Uses sales records, customer feedback, and financial reports.
• Example: Analyzing CRM (Customer Relationship Management) data.
• Pros: Highly relevant, easily accessible.
• Cons: May not provide external perspectives.
Crop Science Data Collection
• 1. Growth Parameters
• These data points help measure the development of crops over time.
• 1.A. Germination rate (%) – Number of seeds that sprout compared to total seeds planted.
• % Germination = Seeds that Germinated/ Total Number of Seeds Sown x 100%
• 1.B. Plant height (cm) – Measured periodically to track growth rate.
• 1.B.A. Tools Required
• Measuring tape – Flexible and good for tall plants.
• Ruler – Best for small plants or seedlings.
• Calipers – Used for measuring small height increments (e.g., in laboratory settings).
• Digital plant height meter – For automated and precise measurements.
• 1.B.B. Steps for Measuring Plant Height
• 1.B.B.1. Standard Measurement from Base to Tip
• Identify the base – Place the measuring tape or ruler at the soil surface (not the pot or container).
• Extend the measurement – Stretch the tape or ruler upwards along the main stem.
• Locate the highest point – Identify the tallest growing point (apical meristem or top leaf).
• Record the height – Note the measurement in centimeters (cm) or inches (in).
• 1B.B.2. Measuring Different Growth Stages
• For seedlings – Measure from the soil to the tip of the tallest leaf.
• For mature plants – Measure up to the highest bud or flower.
• For vines or climbing plants – Measure along the main stem length instead of straight height.
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• 1.C. Leaf number and size – Helps assess plant vigor and photosynthetic
potential.
• 1.C.A. Leaf Count – Counting the Number of Leaves
• 1.C.B. Leaf Area - A. Grid Method (Graph Paper Technique) Best for: Small leaves
Steps:
• Detach a leaf and place it flat on graph paper.
• Trace the outline of the leaf with a pencil.
• Count the number of squares fully inside the outline.
• Estimate partial squares (combine them into whole squares).
• Multiply the number of squares by the area of one square to get the total leaf area.
• Formula: Leaf Area=Total counted squares × Area of one square
• 1.C.B. Ruler Method (Elliptical Approximation) Best for: Quick estimations of simple leaf
shapes
Steps:
• Measure the length (L) and width (W) of the leaf at its widest point.
• Use the formula: Leaf Area=L×W×k
• where k is a correction factor (typically 0.75 for elliptical leaves).
• 1.D. Leaf Area Index - Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a dimensionless value that
represents the total leaf area per unit ground area. It is widely used in
agriculture, forestry, and environmental studies to assess plant canopy density,
light interception, and photosynthetic efficiency.
• Formula: LAI = Total Leaf Area (m2)/ Ground Area (m2)
• Total Leaf Area is the sum of the areas of all leaves in a given ground area.
• Ground Area is the surface area of the land occupied by the plant canopy.
• 1.D.A. Direct Method (Destructive Sampling) - Small-scale studies, high accuracy
• 1. Collect all leaves from a sampled area (e.g., 1 m²).
• 2. Measure each leaf’s area using one of these methods:
• Graph Paper Method (trace and count squares).
• Ruler Method (Length × Width × Correction Factor).
• Digital Image Processing (using software like ImageJ).
• 3. Sum up all leaf areas.
• 4. Divide by the sampled ground area (e.g., 1 m²).
• 1.D.B. Indirect Methods (Non-Destructive) - Large-scale studies, quick estimation
• Hemispherical Photography
• 1. Take upward-facing photos under the canopy using a fish-eye lens.
• 2. Use software (e.g., CAN-EYE, Gap Light Analyzer) to estimate LAI based on light penetration.
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• 1.E. Stem girth/diameter (mm) – Stem girth (circumference)
• Tools Required
• Measuring tape – Flexible tape for easy wrapping around the stem.
• Digital Calipers – For small plants or seedlings.
• 1.E.A. Using a Measuring Tape (Best for Large Stems & Trees)
• 1. Choose the measurement height
• For uniformity, measure at 1.3 meters (or 4.5 feet) above the ground (this is called Diameter at Breast Height
(DBH) in forestry).
• If measuring young plants, measure just above the soil line.
• 2. Wrap the tape around the stem
• Keep the tape level and perpendicular to the stem. Ensure it is snug but not too tight.
• 3. Read the measurement
• Note the girth (circumference) in centimeters (cm) or inches (in).
• 1.E.B. Using Digital Calipers (For Small Plants & Seedlings)
• 1. Place the calipers around the stem at a chosen height.
• 2. Read the girth directly on the digital screen.
• 3. Repeat measurements for accuracy.
• How to Use Stem Girth Data
• Convert Girth to Diameter (If Needed)
Planting Density
• Population density in plants refers to the number of individual plants per unit area of land. The
following are the different planting patterns with their corresponding formulas:
• 1. Square system
• Number of plants/ha = A/s2
• A = total land area (in square meters); s = planting distance (in meters)
• 2. Rectangular
• Number of plants/ha = (L*W)/(s2)
• L = Length of Land Area (in meters); W = Width of Land Area (in meters)
• 3. Quincunx system
• Number of plants/ha = (A/s2) + ((L/s - 1) * (W/s – 1))
• L = Length (in meters); W = Width (in meters)
• 4. Triangular system
• Number of plants/ha = A/s2 * 0.866
• 5. Hexagonal System
• Number of plants/ha = ¾ * s2 * 2
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Soil Science Data Collection Methods
• 1. Soil Texture
• 1.A. Feel Method (Touch and Ribbon Test) Best for: Quick field assessments
• Methods:
• 1. Take a moist soil sample and rub it between your fingers.
• 2. Identify texture based on feel:
• Sand: Gritty and loose, does not form a ribbon.
• Silt: Soft, smooth, and powdery, but not sticky.
• Clay: Sticky, smooth, and forms a ribbon when pressed.
• 3. Perform the Ribbon Test:
• Roll the moist soil into a ball and press between your fingers.
• If it forms a long ribbon (over 5 cm), the soil has high clay content.
• If it crumbles quickly, it has more sand.
• 1.B. Jar Test (Sedimentation Test) Best for: Home or classroom experiments
• Methods:
• 1. Collect a soil sample and remove debris.
• 2. Fill a transparent jar halfway with soil and add water.
• 3. Shake well and let it settle for 24 hours.
• 4. Observe layers:
• Sand settles first (bottom).
• Silt settles in the middle.
• Clay remains suspended and settles last (top).
• 5. Measure each layer and calculate percentages to estimate texture.
• 2. Fertilizer Computation
• It is essential to ensure crops receive the right amount of nutrients without over- or under-
fertilizing. The calculation depends on the nutrient requirement, fertilizer type, and application
area.
• Fertilizer Required = Amount of fertilizer to apply (kg )
• Nutrient Required = Amount of specific nutrient needed per hectare or acre (kg/ha)
• Nutrient % in Fertilizer = Percentage of the nutrient in the fertilizer (from the label).
• Formula:
• Amount of fertilizer = Recommended rate (kg nutrient/ha) * Area (ha)
Percent Nutrient in fertilizer material
• 3. Soil Profiling - involves studying the vertical arrangement of soil layers (horizons) to
understand soil composition, fertility, drainage, and classification. It is essential for
agriculture, construction, and environmental studies.
• 3.1. Soil Pit Method (Excavation Method) / Soil Auger Method
• Best for: Detailed soil analysis, research, and classification
• Steps:
• Dig a pit (usually 1–2 meters deep) using a shovel or soil auger.
• Observe and describe the soil horizons (color, texture, structure, moisture, roots, and organic matter).
• Take soil samples from each horizon for lab analysis.
• Document findings using soil profile charts.
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• 4. Soil Moisture Content
• the amount of water present in the soil, which affects plant growth, irrigation scheduling,
and soil health.
• Formula: % MCw = (FW – ODW)/ ODW x 100
• % MCw = percent moisture content by weight (%)
• FW = Fresh weight of the soil (expressed grams)
• ODW = Oven Dry Weight of soil (expressed grams)
• Formula: % MCv = % MCw x B.D.
• % MCv = percent moisture content by volume (%)
• % MCw = percent moisture content by weight (%)
• B.D. = Bulk Density of soil (expressed in grams per cubic centimeters; g/cm 3)
• 5. Bulk Density
• the mass of dry soil per unit volume, including both soil particles and pore spaces. It is
an important property that influences water movement, root growth, aeration, and
compaction.
• Formula: B.D. = Ws/Vt
• B.D. = Bulk Density of Soil (expressed in grams per cubic centimeters g/cm3)
• Ws = Oven Dried Weight of soil in grams; unit is g (grams)
• Vt = total volume of solid clod; cm3 (includes solids and pore spaces)
• 6. Particle Density
• It is the mass of soil solids (particles only) per unit volume, excluding pore spaces. It represents
the density of mineral and organic particles in the soil.
• Formula: P.D. = Ws/Vs
• P.D. = Particle Density of Soil (expressed in grams per cubic centimeters g/cm3)
• Ws = Oven Dried Weight of soil in grams; unit is g (grams)
• Vs = volume of soil solids; unit is cm3 (pore spaces not included)
• 7. Percent Porosity
• The percentage of pore spaces (voids) in the soil that hold air and water. It determines water
retention, drainage, aeration, and root penetration.
• Formula: % P.S. = [1 – B.D./P.D.] (100)
• Bulk Density (g/cm³) = Mass of dry soil ÷ Total soil volume (includes pores).
• Particle Density (g/cm³) = Mass of soil particles ÷ Volume of soil solids (excludes pores).
• 8. Field Capacity
• Field capacity (FC) is the amount of water retained in the soil after excess water has drained
away due to gravity. It represents the maximum water availability for plant use before the soil
starts drying out.
• Formula: Field Capacity(%) = [Water Content at FC (g or cm3)/Oven Dry Soil Mass (g)] x 100
• 1. Gravimetric Method: FC (%) = (Wf−Wd)/Wd × 100
• Wf = Weight of wet soil after drainage (g)
• Wd = Weight of dry soil after oven-drying (g)
• 2. Volumetric Method (Volume-Based Formula) FC (%) = Vw/Vs × 100
• Vw = Volume of water retained in soil after drainage (cm³ or mL)
• Vs = Total soil volume (cm³)
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Animal Science Data Collection Methods
• 1. Growth and Performance Data
2. Health and Physiological Data
3. Reproductive Data
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• 4. Feed Formulation Formula for Animals
• Feed formulation is the process of combining different feed ingredients to meet the
nutritional requirements of animals in a cost-effective and balanced way. The goal is to
provide the right amounts of energy, protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber for optimal
growth and production.
• 4. 1. Pearson Square Method (Simplest Formula)
• The Pearson Square Method is used to balance two feed ingredients to achieve a target protein level.
• Formula:
• Parts of Ingredient A=∣Target Protein−Protein in Ingredient B∣
• Parts of Ingredient B=∣Protein in Ingredient A−Target Nutrient∣
• Example (Broiler Feed with 18% Crude Protein)
• If using:
• Corn (8% protein)
• Soybean Meal (44% protein)
• Soybean Meal Parts=∣18−8∣=10
• Corn Parts=∣44−18∣=26
• Final ratio: 10 parts Soybean Meal : 26 parts Corn
• Convert to percentages:
• 4.2. Percentage Method (For Multiple Ingredients)
• Used when multiple ingredients are included in a ration.
• Formula:
• Inclusion Rate(%) = (Amount of Ingredient/Total Feed Weight) x 100
• 4.3. Dry Matter Basis Conversion
• Since feed ingredients contain different moisture levels, converting to dry matter basis
allows for proper comparisons.
• Formula:
• Nutrient on Dry Matter Basis(%) = (Nutrient on As-Fed Basis × 100)/(100 – Moisture Content)
• 4.4. Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) Computation
• Used to estimate energy content in feeds.
• Formula:
• TDN(%) = Digestible Fiber + Digestible Protein + Digestible Carbohydrates + (Digestible Fat × 2.25)
• 4.5. Feed Requirement Calculation Based on Body Weight
• For maintenance and production, animals require a specific percentage of their body
weight in feed.
• Formula:
• Daily Feed Intake(kg) = Body Weight (kg) × Feed Requirement (%)
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Crop Protection Data Collection Methods
• 1. Pesticide Computation
• Proper pesticide application requires accurate calculations to ensure effectiveness,
safety, and cost efficiency. The amount of pesticide needed depends on factors such as
recommended dosage, spray volume, area, and concentration.
• 1.1. Basic Formula for Liquid Pesticide Application
• 1.2. Formula for Solid (Granular or Powder) Pesticides
• 1.3. Tank Mixing Formula (For Dilution Calculations)
• 1.4. Concentration Adjustment Formula
• If a pesticide has a higher or lower concentration than required, use:
• 1.5. Area-Based Calculation for Spot Spraying
• 1.6. Calibration of Knapsack Sprayer
• To determine spray rate per hectare, use:
• 2. Pest and Disease Incidence
• Data Collected: Pest type, population density, infection rate, damage level
• Purpose: Identifies pests and their impact
• 3. Biological Control Agents
• Data Collected: Presence of natural predators (e.g., ladybugs, parasitoids)
• Purpose: Determines natural pest suppression
• 4. Weed Infestation
• Data Collected: Weed species, density, competition with crops
• Purpose: Assesses need for weed control
• 5. Nematode Extraction
• Data Collected: Identifying harmful nematodes affecting roots.
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Agricultural Economics Data Collections
• Agricultural economics focuses on farm management, production efficiency,
market trends, and financial analysis. The data collected in this field helps in
decision-making, policy formulation, and improving farm profitability.
• 1. Farm Productivity and Efficiency
• Yield Per Hectare (Crop Production)
• Formula: Yield per Hectare = Total Production (kg or tons) / Total Area (ha)
• 2. Livestock Productivity (Milk, Meat, and Eggs)
• Formula: Productivity = Total Output / Total Number of Animals
• 3. Total Cost
• Formula: TC = Fixed Costs + Variable Costs
• Fixed Cost: refers to expenses that do not change regardless of production levels. These costs remain
constant whether a farm or business produces zero output or maximum output.
• Variable Cost: refers to expenses that change depending on the level of production. The more you
produce, the higher the variable costs; the less you produce, the lower the variable costs.
• 4. Revenue - the total amount of income generated by the sale of goods and services
• Formula: TR = Price per Unit × Total Quantity Sold
• 5. Net Profit (NP)
• final amount of money a company earns after all expenses, including taxes and operating costs, are
deducted from its total revenue; also known as net income
• Formula: NP = Total Revenue − Total Cost
• 6. Price Elasticity of Demand (PED)
• refers to a measure of how sensitive consumers are to a change in the price of a good or service, essentially
showing how much the quantity demanded of a product will change in response to a price fluctuation
• Formula: PED = % Change in Quantity Demanded / % Change in Price
• 7. Break Even Point (BEP)
• the level of production or sales where a company's total revenue exactly equals its total costs, resulting in
neither profit nor loss.
• Formula: BEP = Total Fixed Costs / Selling Price Per Unit – Variable Cost Per Unit
• 8. Average Cost
• refers to the cost per unit of output produced.
• Formula: AC = Total Cost (TC) / Total Output (Q)
• 9. Gross Margin
• It measures the profitability of production before deducting fixed costs like rent, machinery, and salaries.
• Formula: GM = Total Revenue−Total Variable Costs
• 10. Return of Investment
• measures the profitability of an investment by comparing the net profit to the initial cost. It is used to
evaluate the efficiency of a business, farm, or project.
• Formula: ROI = Net Profit / Total Investment x 100
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Chapter 3.1
Review of Related Literature
mjgg
Introduction
• The Review of Related Literature (RRL) is a critical component of
academic research that provides an overview of existing studies
relevant to a particular topic.
• It helps establish a theoretical foundation, identify gaps in the
literature, and support the research framework. An effective RRL
strengthens the credibility of a study and provides context for the
research problem.
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Purpose of the RRL
• The primary purpose of the RRL is to provide background information
on a research topic. It serves several key functions:
• Understanding Existing Research – It helps researchers grasp what has
already been studied and the current state of knowledge on a topic.
• Identifying Research Gaps – By analyzing previous studies, researchers can
pinpoint gaps or areas that require further investigation.
• Establishing Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks – The RRL provides a
basis for the study’s theoretical approach, offering insights into theories and
models that may apply.
• Avoiding Redundancy – It ensures that the researcher is not duplicating work
already done by others.
• Providing Justification for the Study – The RRL supports the necessity of
conducting the research by highlighting existing gaps or unresolved issues.
Components of an Effective RRL
• An effective RRL includes the following elements:
• Thematic Organization – Instead of simply summarizing studies,
the literature should be categorized based on themes, trends, or
concepts.
• Critical Analysis – Rather than just listing studies, researchers
should critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
existing literature.
• Relevance to the Study – The reviewed literature must be directly
related to the research question or objectives.
• Synthesis of Findings – A good RRL integrates findings from
multiple sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
topic.
• Proper Citation and Referencing – It is essential to acknowledge
the original authors and avoid plagiarism.
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Steps in Conducting an RRL
• Define the Research Problem – Clearly outline the topic and
objectives to determine relevant literature.
• Search for Relevant Literature – Use academic databases, books,
journals, and other credible sources.
• Evaluate and Select Sources – Choose high-quality and credible
sources that contribute valuable insights.
• Organize the Literature – Group the studies thematically,
methodologically, or chronologically.
• Write the Review – Synthesize and present the information logically
while connecting it to the research problem.
• Cite Properly – Use appropriate citation styles, such as APA, MLA, or
Chicago.
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