Module V
Contents
Digital modulation schemes. Baseband BPSK
system and the signal constellation. BPSK
transmitter and receiver. Base band QPSK
system and Signal constellations. Plots of BER Vs
SNR with analysis. QPSK transmitter and receiver.
Quadrature amplitude modulation and signal
constellation.
Baseband and Passband signals
A baseband signal - the original information signal in its
natural, low-frequency form, ranging from near zero hertz
to a maximum frequency (e.g., audio or video) -
transmitted directly or over a dedicated wire
. A passband signal, - is a baseband signal that has been
modulated to a higher frequency range, centered
around a carrier frequency, for efficient long-distance
transmission over a communication channel.
Passband transmission
Digital modulation schemes
In digital passband transmission incoming data streams
in the form of ‘1’s and ‘0’s.
The communication channel uses passband data
transmission like microwaves, satellite communication
etc.
Modulation process uses switching or keying.
Basic types of digital modulation Schemes
Amplitude Shift keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
Phase shift keying(PSK)
Things to be considered
Probability of Error
Power spectra
Bandwidth efficiency
Amplitude Shift Keying
Uses two amplitudes, one
for message digital pulse
‘1’ and other for zero.
Frequency and phase
same for both signals
On- Off keying : One
binary digit is represented
by the presence of a
carrier, the other binary
digit is represented by the
absence of a carrier.
Frequency remains fixed
Frequency Shift keying
The process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave
by choosing one of two frequencies (binary FSK) in
correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that
constitute the information signal.
Two binary digits are represented by two frequencies
around the carrier frequency.
Amplitude remains fixed
Frequency Shift Keying
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Digital
information
Carrier 1
(frequency #1)
Carrier 2
(frequency #2)
FSK
modulated
signal
Frequency
varying-amplitude
constant
Two types of detection
Coherent and Non coherent
Coherent detection uses a locally generated carrier
wave at the receiver that is synchronized in phase with
the transmitted carrier wave, while non-coherent
detection does not require this phase reference.
Coherent detection requires a complex phase
recovery circuit but provides better power efficiency
Phase shift keying
process which conveys data by
changing (modulating) the phase of
a constant frequency carrier wave.
Amplitude and frequency are
constant
Binary Phase shift keying
180 degree out of
BPSK phase- antipodal
signals
One basis function
BPSK has only one basis function
So BPSK Signals can be expressed in
terms of basis functions
Signal space representation
Detection
BPSK transmitter
Waveforms
BPSK transmitter
[Link] Data Input:
The process starts with the binary message signal, a sequence of 0s
and 1s.
2. NRZ Encoder:
This block converts the binary input into a bipolar
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signal.
In this bipolar format, a '1' is represented by a positive amplitude (+1)
and a '0' by a negative amplitude (-1).
3. Carrier Generator:
This block generates a continuous sinusoidal carrier wave at a specific
frequency.
BPSK transmitter
4. Product Modulator (Balanced Modulator):
This is the core of the modulator.
It multiplies the bipolar NRZ signal from the encoder with the carrier wave.
When the bipolar signal is +1, the carrier wave's phase remains
unchanged.
When the bipolar signal is -1, the carrier wave's phase is shifted by 180
degrees.
This phase shift effectively encodes the binary data onto the carrier wave.
5. BPSK Output:
The output of the product modulator is the BPSK modulated signal.
This signal is a carrier wave that has its phase reversed by 180 degrees at
the transition of each binary bit, according to the input data.
BPSK receiver
BPSK receiver
Product modulator- supplied with a locally generated
reference signal that is a replica of the carrier wave.
Low-pass filter- remove the double-frequency
components of the product modulator output.
Decision-making device, which compares the sampled
value of the low- pass filters output to an externally
supplied threshold, every seconds. If the threshold is
exceeded, the device decides in favor of symbol 1;
otherwise, it decides in favor of symbol 0 levels.
Signal constellation
M-ary signalling
M-ary Signalling
M-ary ASK
M-ary FSK
M-ary PSK
We are interested in M-ary PSK where M=4
2 –ary PSK
and 4-ary ASK
QFSK
Quadrature Phase shift Keying (QPSK)
M-ary PSK where M=4 (a variation of BPSK. )
Transmitting two bits of digital information at a time.( two
bits per symbol.)
Four carrier phase offsets with a phase difference of ±90°
for four possible combinations of two bits( 00, .01, 10, 11)
reduces the required bandwidth by allowing the
transmission of two bits per symbol, effectively increasing
the data rate without increasing the bandwidth
significantly.
Quadrature Phase shift Keying (QPSK)
four QPSK phase shifts are 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315°.
The signals will be
Signal space representation QPSK
QPSK transmitter
QPSK transmitter
QPSK transmitter
Two binary waves a1(t) and a2(t) modulated by
φ1(t) and φ2(t)
Will result in two BPSK signals
This BPSK signal pair- given to a summer/adder
QPSK waveforms
QPSK transmitter
The QPSK transmitter may be viewed as two binary PSK
generators that work in parallel, each at a bit rate equal
to one-half the bit rate of the original binary sequence at
the QPSK transmitter input.
QPSK receiver
QPSK RECEIVER
uses two product demodulators, two integrator circuits,
and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter.
The two product detectors at the input of demodulator
simultaneously demodulate the two BPSK signals
A correlator is used.
If x1>threshold, then the bit is decided as bit ‘1’, else
zero.
Similarly for x2
Finally given to a serial to parallel convertor.
Signal constellation of QPSK
QPSK RECEIVER
The I-channel and Q-channel signals are
individually demodulated in the same way as
that of BPSK demodulation.
After demodulation, the I-channel bits and
Q-channel sequences are combined into a
single sequence.
BER of BPSK and QPSK refer notes
Very important
In phase and quadrature component of signals
in quadrature modulation
“in-phase”and “quadrature” refer to two sinusoids that have the
same frequency and are 90° out of phase.
By convention, the I signal is a cosine waveform, and the Q signal is
a sine waveform.
Amplitude, phase, and frequency modulation can be performed
by summing amplitude-modulated I/Q signals.
Quadrature modulation refers to modulation that involves I/Q
signals.
Quadrature phase shift keying can be accomplished by adding I
and Q carriers that have been individually multiplied, in
accordance with the incoming digital data, by +1 or –1.
Hybrid Amplitude/ phase modulation
schemes
In BPSK the in phase component and
quadrature component are interrelated.
If they are independent , then the modulation
scheme is M-ary Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation ( M-ary QAM)
For QAM basis functions are not periodic (but
not a concern)
QAM
Both amplitude and phase are varied.
Can modulate two individual signals and transmit
them to the receiver level.
Channel bandwidth also increases.
Techniques used in analog and digital modulations
Basis functions
Signal constellation
Signal constellation
Signal Constellation
Let dmin denote the minimum distance between any two message
points in the QAM constellation .
where E0 is the energy of the message signal with the lowest
amplitude.
Mary QAM
QAM transmitter
QAM receiver
BER vs SNR plot
Bit error rate (BER) is defined as a measure of the number
of bit errors occurring in a specified number of bit
transmissions.
expressed as a ratio
If, on the average, two bits are in error for every million
(106) bits transmitted, then the bit error rate is
BER vs SNR
often expressed in decibels.
Key features
Inverse Relationship: BER and SNR have an inverse
relationship.
Exponential Decrease: As SNR increases, BER decreases
exponentially.
Logarithmic Scale: The BER axis is usually on a logarithmic
scale to better visualize the large range of values and
the rapid changes in error rate.
Channel Dependence: The shape and position of the
curve are influenced by the type of channel (e.g.,
AWGN or Rayleigh fading) and the specific
implementation of the BPSK system.
BER Vs SNR
lower BER is always desired in the system
but with a less SNR
higher SNR means high power to be
transmitted
BER Vs SNR
BER Vs SNR curves