SLL Questions

1. What is the difference between competence and performance in language learning?

Competence refers to internalized knowledge of a language, while performance is the practical
application of that knowledge in real-world situations.

2. What is interlanguage in SLA?

Interlanguage is the transitional language system learners develop as they progress toward
fluency, representing a unique mix of L1 and L2 features.

3. What is the formalist view of language?

The formalist view, associated with Chomsky, sees language as a structured system governed by
rules, independent of its use for communication.

4. How does the functionalist view of language differ from the formalist view?
Functionalists see language as evolving through use, with grammar and structure shaped by
communicative needs and meaning-making in context.

5. What is the concept of multicompetence in SLA?

Multicompetence refers to the idea that multilingual learners develop a merged language system
where their different languages interact and influence each other.

6. Why has the native-speaker target in SLA been challenged?

Research shows that native-speaker usage is highly variable, and multilinguals develop dynamic,
unique systems rather than conforming to fixed native-speaker norms.

7. What is Universal Grammar, and which theory supports it?

Universal Grammar, supported by Chomsky's modular view, is the idea that humans have an
innate mechanism for learning the structure of any language.

8. What is the main focus of functionalist approaches to language learning?

Functionalist approaches emphasize the communicative functions of language and how grammar
is shaped by its use in conveying meaning.

9. What is the 'language target' in SLA?

 The language target is the level of proficiency learners aim to achieve, ranging from native-like
fluency to functional communication skills, depending on their goals.

10. What does the unitary view of cognition propose about language learning?
The unitary view suggests that language is learned using the same general cognitive processes as
other types of knowledge, without a special language module.

11. How has the concept of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) influenced SLA?
ELF recognizes English as a global language used primarily by non-native speakers, shifting the
focus from native-speaker norms to effective communication in diverse contexts.
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12. What does behaviourism focus on?

Observable behavior and conditioning.

13. Who are three key proponents of behaviourism?

John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Ivan Pavlov.

14. What is classical conditioning?

Forming associations between two stimuli, as demonstrated by Pavlov's experiments with dogs.

15. How is operant conditioning applied in language learning?

By using reinforcement (positive or negative) and punishment to shape language habits.

16. What teaching method is closely associated with behaviourism?

The audio-lingual method (ALM).

17. What is habit formation in language learning?

Learning through imitation, repetition, and feedback.

18. What is positive transfer in language learning?

When L1 and L2 share similar structures, aiding correct language use.

19. What is negative transfer?

Errors caused by L1 habits clashing with L2 rules.

20. What are the main critiques of behaviourism?

It focuses on form over meaning, neglects creativity, and overlooks individual differences and
cognitive factors.

21. What are two ways Krashen suggests we learn a language?

Acquisition and learning.

22. What does Krashen’s Input Hypothesis emphasize?

 Comprehensible input that is slightly beyond the learner's current level (“i+1”).

23. What role does the Monitor play in Krashen’s theory?

It acts as an editor, checking for errors when focusing on form.

24. What is the affective filter, according to Krashen?

Emotional factors that either block or allow language input to be processed.

25. What is the natural order hypothesis?

Language rules are learned in a specific, natural sequence, regardless of teaching.

26. What happens when a learner has a high affective filter?

Stress or lack of confidence blocks language input.
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1. What is Universal Grammar (UG)?

Universal Grammar is a linguistic theory proposed by Noam Chomsky. It suggests that humans are born
with an innate ability to learn language, guided by universal grammatical principles common to all
languages.

2. Why is Universal Grammar important?

UG is important because it explains how language learning is possible despite the diversity of languages.
It provides a framework that helps individuals acquire and make sense of linguistic structures,
highlighting the shared fundamental features of all languages.

3. What are the reasons for the need for UG?

Rapid Language Acquisition: Children quickly and naturally learn grammar without formal instruction.
Universal Grammatical Patterns: Languages share common features, like distinguishing between
statements and questions.
Brain Adaptation: Humans have unique cognitive abilities to learn complex languages, supporting the
existence of UG.

4. What are the two main components of UG?

Principles: Universal grammatical rules, such as the requirement for a subject in a sentence.
Parameters: Language-specific variations, like word order, that are adjusted based on the language being
learned.

5. How does UG contribute to first language acquisition?

UG provides children with innate grammatical rules (principles) that help them process the linguistic
input from their environment. Exposure to specific examples allows them to set parameters, enabling
efficient and intuitive language learning.

6. What role does UG play in second language acquisition (SLA)?

Transfer from L1: Learners often rely on the UG settings from their first language, which can lead to
errors if the second language differs.
Use of UG by Adults: There is debate about whether adults still use UG in SLA or rely more on explicit
learning strategies.

7. What are the achievements of UG in understanding SLA?

Explains the development of grammatical structures, like word order and verb forms.
Provides insights into language transfer, showing how L1 influences L2 learning.

8. What are the main criticisms of UG?

Not a Complete Learning Theory: UG doesn’t address how language is learned in real-world contexts.
Focus on Structure, Not Use: It emphasizes grammar and syntax over language use in social and
emotional contexts.
Reliability of Research: The use of grammaticality judgment tests may not always yield reliable results,
especially for L2 learners.
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1. What do cognitive approaches to SLA emphasize?

They emphasize how the brain processes, learns, and remembers language.

2. How do cognitive approaches view language learners?

As active participants who analyze, practice, and internalize language through exposure.

3. What is implicit learning in cognitive approaches?

Unconscious learning of language patterns through exposure without explicit awareness.

1. What is statistical learning?

Detecting patterns in language input based on frequency, like word combinations or structures.

1. What is associative learning?

Forming connections between words or phrases and their meanings through repeated exposure.

1. What role does working memory play in L2 learning?

It helps learners process and understand sentences temporarily but has limitations for complex forms.
 1. What is automation in language learning?
Making language use effortless through repeated exposure and practice.

1. How does L1 influence L2 learning?

L1 can both help with familiar structures and cause errors due to structural differences.

1. What is a common challenge for adults learning an L2?

They often rely on explicit learning, which can slow fluency compared to implicit learning.

1. How can teachers apply cognitive approaches in the classroom?

By increasing input frequency, highlighting language features, and encouraging practice for automation.

1. What are strengths of cognitive approaches?

They align with natural brain processes, validate errors, and support tailored teaching strategies.

1. What is a limitation of cognitive approaches?

They focus more on individual processing than on social and interactive aspects of language learning.

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1. What are the two main memory systems involved in SLA?

Declarative memory (explicit knowledge) and procedural memory (automatic skills).

1. What is declarative memory's role in SLA?

It stores explicit knowledge, such as vocabulary and grammar rules, used in early learning stages.

1. What is procedural memory's role in SLA?

It automates skills and routines, enabling fluent and unconscious language use.

1. How does knowledge transition between memory systems in SLA?

Knowledge in declarative memory transitions to procedural memory through repeated practice and
exposure.

1. What are the three stages of information processing in SLA?

Input (encountering language), processing (analyzing meaning and structure), and output (producing
language).

1. What is the cognitive stage in skill acquisition?

Learners focus on understanding and applying rules consciously.

1. What is Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis?

Learners must consciously notice language features for them to be acquired.

1. What are the two types of awareness in SLA?

Explicit awareness (conscious analysis of rules) and implicit awareness (subconscious pattern
recognition).
 1. What role does working memory play in SLA?
It temporarily holds and processes language input, helping learners decode, comprehend, and produce
sentences.

1. How can teachers address working memory limitations?

Simplify input, repeat key phrases, and use visual aids to reduce cognitive load.

1. What is a strength of cognitive approaches?

They provide a clear framework for understanding how learners transition from explicit knowledge to
fluent use.

1. What is a limitation of cognitive approaches?

They neglect the social and contextual aspects of language acquisition.

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1. What is the key idea of the Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996)?

Interaction provides necessary input for L2 learning, with modified input and negotiation of meaning
playing critical roles.

1. What is modified input?

Simplified or adapted language during communication to help learners understand.

1. What is negotiation of meaning?

A process where learners clarify or resolve misunderstandings during interaction to learn language
forms.

1. How does interaction help learners acquire L2 structures?

It exposes learners to correct sentence structures and provides feedback for adjustment and
internalization.

1. How does interaction improve vocabulary learning?

Interaction provides contextual exposure to new words and active practice, aiding retention and usage.

1. What are two main types of feedback in interaction?

Corrective feedback (direct or indirect error correction) and interactional feedback (clues from
interlocutors about errors).

1. What does the Output Hypothesis (Swain) emphasize?

Producing language (output) is essential for learning as it helps internalize grammar, vocabulary, and
structures.

1. What are prompts in corrective feedback?

Cues or hints encouraging learners to refine or correct their language use.
 1. What is Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis?
Learners must consciously notice language features during exposure to acquire them.

1. What challenges learners’ ability to notice language forms?

Limited attention, unclear input, and a focus on communication rather than form.

1. How can teachers enhance noticing?

By using techniques like focus-on-form to shift attention from meaning to language structures during
interaction.

1. What learner characteristics influence engagement in interaction?

Motivation, personality, cognitive styles, and working memory capacity.

1. What is a strength of interaction-based models?

They provide real-world language use opportunities, promoting authentic learning experiences.

1. What is a limitation of interaction-based models?

They may underestimate cognitive load, individual differences, and external sociocultural influences.

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1. What do meaning-based perspectives prioritize in SLA?

Understanding, expressing, and using meaning in real communication.

1. What is the primary focus of functionalist studies in SLA?

Language as a tool to convey meaning through interaction in social and cognitive contexts.

1. What was the contribution of the European Science Foundation (ESF) project?
It studied universal communication functions and cross-linguistic comparisons in authentic contexts.

1. What is 'time talk' in SLA?

The development of learners’ ability to express past events using temporal markers.

1. What does the Aspect Hypothesis suggest?

Learners first acquire the aspect of verbs (e.g., completed or ongoing actions) before full tense systems.

1. What does 'thinking for speaking' propose?

Language influences how speakers categorize and conceptualize the world while communicating.

1. How does pragmatic competence help learners?

It enables them to use language appropriately in social and cultural contexts.

1. What are examples of speech acts in pragmatic competence?

Apologizing, requesting, and complimenting.

1. What is a key strength of meaning-based approaches?

They provide a holistic view of language learning, focusing on communication and cultural contexts.

1. What is a limitation of meaning-based approaches?

They may underemphasize grammatical accuracy in early learning stages.

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1. What is the main focus of sociocultural perspectives on SLL?

The role of social and cultural interactions in language learning.

2. What does the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refer to?

Tasks learners can do with guidance but not independently.

3. How does collaborative learning benefit SLL?

It improves language proficiency, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

4. Why is cultural context important in SLL?

It helps learners understand social norms and cultural practices for effective communication.

5. What is mediation in sociocultural theory?

Using tools like language and cultural artifacts to interact and solve problems.

6. What happens during internalization?

Learners independently use language they previously learned through social interactions.

7. How can learners grasp politeness in English?

By learning expressions like "Could you please help me?" for appropriate contexts.

8. What is an example of scaffolding in SLL?

A teacher helping a learner form complex sentences in the target language