CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Concept of Classroom Management
The classroom is an operational venue in schools which holds students together
and offers them the opportunity of achieving the purpose of education, (Colvin et. al.,
2016) .It is a room in a school where a group of students or children are taught lessons.
Thus, the classroom should be well managed and maintained to bring about healthy
learning environment, relatively free from behavioral problems which goal should be to
maintain a positive productive learning environment and quality performance. The
quality of the physical environment, according to Wilson et. al. (2013) affects the
performance of teachers as well as that of students.
Classroom management can be defined as the teachers’ ability to co-operatively
manage time, space, resources, students’ roles and behaviors to provide a climate that
encourages learning (Wilson and Lipsey, 2016). Wilson et. al. (2018) viewed classroom
management as the provisions and procedures necessary to establish and maintain an
environment in which instruction and learning can occur.
Classroom management according to Stage and Quiroz (2017) involves a positive
classroom environment, appropriate standards of behaviors for students, effective
management of daily routines and instructions, and engaging the students in classroom
activities throughout the lessons to ensure quality secondary education. The emphasis on
classroom management therefore is dependent on components such as, an engaging
curriculum, the teacher as a role model, students as responsible citizens, classroom
management skills, robust instruction and working with resistance, conflict and stress. If
any of this component is neglected, the whole process is compromised, leading to poor
quality in education.
Classroom management is the process of enhancing the learning environment,
physical interaction between teachers and students, student to student, parents and others,
stimulating and motivating children to learn to learning objectives, control and
supervision throughout the school to facilitate and encourage co-operation in teaching
and learning activities in the classroom smoothly, will as a result, improve the quality of
students performance (Spivack and Shure, 2019).
Classroom management, therefore, could be seen as an integrant part of effective
teaching which deters behavior problems through good planning, organizing and
managing of classroom activities, good presentation of instructional materials and good
teacher-student interaction aiming at increasing students’ involvement and co-operation
in learning to ensure quality secondary education.
Classroom management is an art and a science with many identifiable
characteristics that result in smooth periods of learning, flexible enough to recognize
what is needed and has the ability to keep control of the situation(s) that arise. Effective
classroom management begins with mutual respect and interpersonal relationships and is
vital to improve student achievement and teacher self-efficacy. It requires commitment to
students and their learning, because a positive rapport with students is the foundation
upon which classroom culture is built (Smith and Smith, 2016).
Effective classroom management is an essential ingredient that promotes and
enhances good teaching-learning environment which eventually lead to quality secondary
education. The teachers and other members of staff must co-operate to manage the
classroom, students, non-human resources and the environment. Effective classroom
management revolves around the teachers’ attitudes, skills, desires, setting of
expectations and positive actions (Simonsen et. al., 2008). To improve classroom
behavior and student social skills, teachers must conceptualize the process of teaching
and understand classroom management principles for making professional decision on
class management. A well-managed classroom should strike a balance between consistent
disciplines and praise (Siebert, 2015).
Additionally, Shores et. al. (2018) has found that rules and routines provide
students with structure to work in organization and interact with each other fairly. The
class rules and routines must be mentioned both verbally and in written form. Examples
should be shared wherever necessary by the teachers through modelling during teaching
and learning. The basic purpose of classroom management is socialization of students. It
depends on the environment prevailing in the school. Positive environment directs
students’ behavior in a positive manner. Teachers should direct students’ behavior in a
desirable way. Whenever there is any disturbance in the classroom, teachers may take
help from experts and develop better strategies to cope with particular students with
inappropriate behaviors.
For successful teaching and learning teachers need to plan effectively. Successful
classroom teaching plan supports teachers in successful classroom management. For this
purpose, Parker et. al. (2015) suggest six strategies such as reflecting on student
development needs, creating a supportive physical environment, creating a cooperative
learning environment, teaching and maintaining rules and procedures, managing
classroom activities effectively, promoting sense of cooperation among students, using
appropriate classroom management style.
According to Oliver and Reschly (2014) the goal of classroom management is
considering and satisfying students’ developmental needs. This purpose can be achieved
by creating conducive learning environment, stimulating sights, relax sounds and good
ventilation. In view of Musser et. al. (2011) classroom is a place where students should
feel comfortable and at ease. The surrounding of the classroom should be neat and clean.
There should be respect for each other and a non-threatening atmosphere. Effective
teachers create a classroom management which is based on engaging practices. Such
teachers set expectations for their students such as respect for rules and procedures and a
motivating learning climate where every student takes part with interest.
2.2 Models of Classroom Management
The classroom teacher needs to be familiar with various available approaches or
models of classroom management.
Such a familiarization will assist the teacher to identify relevant strategize or
techniques which can be used to maintain classroom control and discipline.
The following eight (8) approaches are used for ensuring effective classroom
management worldwide. Ahrentzen and Evans (2018). These models approaches are.
1. Authoritarian model
2. Institutional model
3. Behavior modification model
4. Intimidation approach
5. Permissive classroom management approach
6. Cook book approach
7. Socio – emotional climate approach
8. The group – process or socio psychological approach
2.2.1 Authoritarian Model
This is the most commonly useful approach to classroom management and control.
In the type controls and strategies to maintain student’s behavior are more or less
regulated through established and enforced rules norms and control mechanism. It is an
approach which makes the classroom teacher to be in charge since it is assumed he or
she is the one who knows best critics of this model have termed it is an instrument of
intimidation, since in its purest form a student’s deviates from established rules and
regulations (Anderson and Evertson, 2018).
The teacher is expected to enforce adherence to the stated expected behavior and
disruption of class management controls may engender some form of punishment. In its
‘purest’ form but it has however changed with recent development in teaching. In this
approach, the teacher usually establishes the limits of tolerable activities for her class.
This approach to classroom management is therefore, more commonly used with
pupils of nursery, primary school and junior schools. In many cases students at the senior
secondary school level can also be out under this model of management control (Becker
et. al., 2017).
All the primary and junior secondary levels, students are presumed to be going
through the most difficult period of early adolescent period there are sometimes immature
and impulsive and generally want to separate themselves from adult authorities.
Classroom management at this stage is therefore a matter of instilling controlled self –
discipline since rules and regulations being enforce in the classroom serve to guided and
limit the student’s behavior.
 In authoritarian model of classroom management a student’s deviation from
established rules norms and regulation could land him in serious problems including
punishment. Most advocates of the authoritarian model do not support the use of severe
punishment even though the basic assumption and hence priority of the model is that
classroom orderliness should be enforced through the use of well-defined establishment,
strict rules and regulation.
2.3 Factors in Classroom Management
2.3.1 The Nature of the Leaner
Students differ in many aspects some are gifted while others are normal or
challenged. Some are introverts while others are extroverts. Pupils therefore require
different management techniques in the classroom. A good teacher must identify the
differences and apply appropriate and relevant management techniques secondary school
student are by nature playful young inquisitive, restive, acquisitive and reliable. These
qualities must be used well in managing their classes and to make learn in class.
2.3.2 Nature of Subject Matter
Subjects taught require different management techniques and challenges.
Individualized instruction may be required in some lessons while group work may be
required in others. The process of decoding knowledge particularly at the secondary
school classroom should involve a lot of activities. This is because the students are
young and easily bored if there are no activities. This put specific burdens on the nature
and quality of the behavior of the individual members of the social group. The teacher
seeks here to encourage development if behaviors that would lead to the achievement of
the goals and aspiration of the class group.
The ability of the teacher to lead well and effectively in order to achieve instructional
objectives is the focus of classroom management.
The following factors would help the teacher in proper classroom management.
i. The nature of the teacher
ii. The nature of the learner
iii. Nature of subject matter
 iv. Resources factors
v. Time factors
vi. Location factors
2.3.4 The Nature of the Teacher
A trained teacher by virtue of his training must exhibit skills of human relations,
skills of knowledge of the subject matter and skills or strategies of how to teach in order
that the pupils may learn. The lack of any or all, these skills will make classroom
management between the teacher and the learners must redial confidence and partnership
to ensure effectiveness and purposeful efficiency. According to Evertson and Weinstein
(2006) once a teacher loses control of their classroom, it becomes increasingly more
difficult for them to regal
2.3.5 Resources Factors
Resources for teaching and learning may or may not be available in the right
quality and quantity. This affects classroom management. Where for instances, fifty –
five students are to use few game materials or where in class the teacher does not have
enough equipment to go round these may result into noisy disorderly class. We have
classes where pupils have practically everything, the chair, the table, textbook, writing
materials, instructional materials and workbook etc. the classroom may also be too large
or too small. In the former the teacher talk to space the later the class is overcrowded and
he has to deal with noise. These require different management and effectiveness. A class
may be in roe for teachers to move round if there is space. Lack of space may call forf
flexible arrangement. Lack of space may also degenerate into chaotic and noisy class
since children are naturally noisy and expressive.
2.3.6 Time Factor
Management of time is very important as time lost cannot be replenished. The
factor of time also relates to when to do the lesson and how long a lesson should last,
when a lesson last for too long, the pupils in class because of their age, may become
bored, tired, distracted and disorderly. When it is too short they may become discourage,
demotivated and over rushed. The time a lesson comes up in a season of term is also a
factor in how a class must be or is managed. Naturally, primary school pupils, are
nervous and restive during hot weather. They required activities when it is too hot. They
must be protected during rainy and storming weather. When they require activity the
teacher must not demoted the class. He must allow them to dance and talk. According to
Greer-Chase et. al., (2002) the time a teacher has to take to correct misbehavior caused
by poor classroom managements skills results in a lower rate of academic engagement in
the classroom.
2.3.7 Location Factors
Classes that are located near market places and noisy environments are more
difficult to manage than the ones located in serene and local areas. Ensuring that the
school is secured will go a long way to ensuring easy management. According to Soheili,
Alizadeh, Murphy and Ferguson. Classroom management can be explained as the actions
and directions that teachers use to create a successful learning environment indeed,
having a positive impact on students achieving given learning requirements and goals.
2.4 Methods of Effective Classroom Control
The teacher could bring about effective classroom control by utilizing some
methods. These methods are stated below (Hall et. al., 2008).
i. Use of assertive discipline
ii. Use of site based on management
iii. Good curriculum
iv. Constant dialogue with the home
v. Moral instruction
vi. Use of rewards
vii. Post of honor
viii. Poor teaching method / inadequate preparation
2.4.1 Use of Assertive Discipline
Assertive discipline is a behavior management system that incorporates three
elements of classroom management. These include, first the teaching of expected
behavior, where is second and third the use of negative consequences are developed by
the school and usually follows a warning to suspension as the final consequences. If
students choose to behave inappropriate, they also choose a consequence
2.4.2 Use of Site Base Management
Site – based management is a creative decision making and implementation process
for maximizing involvement and interaction by those members of the school community
closer to the issue being addressed.
2.4.3 Good Curriculum
A good curriculum may be very difficult to define undoubtedly, all the programmed
of activities designed to educate. This child must be effective. It must perform the
function for which it is designed.
2.4.4 Constant Dialogue with the Home
Where it is discovered that the child practices one or more of the misbehaviors
mentioned, the cause may be home environment. It is the duty of the teacher will
converse with the parent and advice them. The teacher will not fail to reveal all the
misbehaving manners of the child. Through this, the home may play its own part.
2.4.5 Moral Instruction
Moral instruction, through religious stories in school will help in educating the child.
2.4.6 Use of Rewards
This strategy can be employed for a truant child. If t is discovered that a pupils is a
perpetual truant, he or she can be made to catch late comers such a child is likely to come
early in the morning to catch his former co – truants. This will encourage the pupils to be
punctual in school.
2.4.7 Poor Teaching Methods / Inadequate Preparation
To gain the attention of the class, the teacher should vary his teaching method.
Teaching aids, illustration story telling should be used at appropriate time. Also, the
teacher should regard his or her job as the one that fetches him or her remuneration. As
on preparation, he or she should find time to get information for his or her lesson. This
can be achieved by consulting books, journals, conducting, interviews, reading
newspaper and his listening to radio. In this way the teacher would be adequately
prepared to face his class, and no doubt he or she will gain the attention of his class.
Moreover, a teacher should not be permissive in his or her class. He should be taught
but democratic. Guided freedom allows the class to have confidence in the teacher. The
learner should be allowed to make part in decision making. The teacher should help when
the class is in difficulty.
2.5 Problems of Effective Classroom Management
In a school system, where good classroom management is lacking, there is likely
to be chaos which affects the teaching-learning process, and the standard of students
performance, hence a good teacher should be acquainted with such problems, be able to
prevent and find solutions to such problems in order to promote quality secondary
education. These problems are as follows:
2.5.1. Overcrowded Classroom: The most crucial of all problems is overcrowded
classroom which constitutes a serious problem in many school systems (Holt et. al.,
2012) particularly in urban areas where space for new construction of classroom is at a
premium and funding for such construction is limited. As a result, students find
themselves trying to learn in overcrowded classrooms, where 60-80 students occupy a
classroom as seen in some Delta State Secondary Schools. My experience as a classroom
teacher in the 1990’s showed that overcrowded classrooms lead to noise making and
restlessness lose interest and lack concentration on their lessons. Teachers spend much
time controlling and managing the students instead of teaching, thereby making the
teaching-learning process cumbersome especially in group work and co-operative
learning.
Some recent studies (Kelshaw-Levering et. al., 2000) have linked teacher
effectiveness and teacher attrition to the condition of the school in which they teach.
Kellam et. al. (2020), in their study revealed that poor teacher-student relationship, poor
motivation, inadequate physical facilities, and teacher’s work environment in terms of
conducive environment are major constraints to effective classroom management.
Other problems of effective classroom management include the following:
2.5.2. Classroom Structure: Another problem is classroom structure which means the
physical setting of the classroom. It constitutes management behavior problems due to
inadequate number of furniture, lack of space between this furniture, inadequate
chalkboard, poor ventilation and lighting, the size of the classroom and also the sitting
arrangement (Kehle et. al., 2020).
2.5.3. Instructional Delivery Method: This has been identified as one of the major
factors that constitute classroom management problems. The teacher who uses only one
method of teaching without varying his methods makes the lesson boring and
uninteresting to the students. Teacher’s insufficient knowledge of subject matter and poor
communication cause inappropriate behaviors and poor academic standard (Kehle et. al.,
2020).
2.5.4. Lack of Teacher’s Preparation: Many teachers have no comprehensive
information to apply to the management of student’s behavior problems in the classroom;
instead they employ various ideas about discipline from disparate sources. Teacher
training institutions which puts emphasis on pedagogical methods and content knowledge
does not do much to ameliorate this situation. There should be a program/course on
classroom management problems and their solutions in teacher training institutions so
that such problems will be properly identified and handled. Thus, many teachers embark
on their career without having mastered an effective approach to managing students in
the classroom (Kehle et. al., 2016).
Some classroom management problems which are resultant effects of the above
problems include absenteeism, noise making, rudeness, disobedience, naughtiness,
truancy, restlessness, inattention, boredom, fighting (verbal and physical), sleeping,
untidiness and refusal to do assignments.
2.6 Preventing Classroom Management Problems
Teachers and students sometimes perceive things in different ways and these
differences in perception constitute a management problem. To reduce these differences,
and in order to be effective, and promote quality teaching and learning, teachers must be
proactive, facilitative and imaginative classroom managers (Kauffman, 2005). Thus, the
under listed strategies will prevent classroom management problems:
1) Providing instructions that use a variety of models, approaches and activities
consistent with learning objectives because young students typically respond positively to
stimulation and variety in the classroom. These activities make students to participate
actively in the lesson, and increases their attention span and motivation.
2) Instruction should be free of ambiguous and vague terms and interruptions. The
instruction should be made simple from known ideas to unknown (Greer-Chase et. al.,
2002).
3) Keeping thorough and realistic records of student’s attendance and academic
performances for the purpose of evaluation.
4) Knowing students names and calling them by their names will make them feel that
they are part of the classroom organization.
5) Encouraging students to work co-operatively in groups such as laboratory activities or
smaller group projects (Hall et. al., 2008).
6) Monitoring students carefully and frequently so that misbehaviour is detected early
before it involves many students or becomes serious and redirecting the students to
appropriate behavior by stating what the students should be doing citing the applicable
procedure or rule (Ingersoll and Smith, 2003).
7) Challenging learners to greater achievement by involving students in the self-
evaluating process.
8) Teachers can reduce inappropriate behaviors from problems in the physical
environment by changing the sitting positions of the students that are likely to exhibit
classroom behavior problems and ensuring that students can easily get access to
instructional materials and activities, (Hedges, 2017). There should be proper seating
arrangement in which the teacher is close to all the students in order to direct learning as
well as circumvent any inappropriate behavior that will disrupt classroom activities. The
teacher should also review the amount of furniture provided whether they are adequate or
not for the student’s population and classroom size (Harris and Sherman, 2017).
9) Teacher’s conscious modelling in terms of behavior will have positive impact on
classroom management. This implies that the students will expect the teacher to be a role
model (good example) of the expectations that he conveys. Teachers who are courteous,
prompt, enthusiastic, patient and organized provide examples for their students through
their own behavior.
10) Involving learners in curriculum planning, and also keeping the curriculum
interesting by varying presentation formats (Freiberg et. al., 2015).
11) Probing into the students’ background is a valuable step of solving classroom
management problems. This is because student’s indiscipline in school could arise from
the home environment and training to which the students were exposed before coming to
school (Fishbein and Wasik, 2017).
12) Rules, policies and procedures should be clearly stated and taught to the students.
2.7 Importance of Effective Classroom Management
1. Effective use of classroom management techniques can dramatically decrease the
disruptions in the classes.
2. Students in classes where effective management techniques are employed have
achievement higher than students in classes where effective management
techniques are not employed.
3. It is not possible for a teacher to conduct instruction or for students to work
productively if they have no guidelines for how to behave or when to move about
the room, or if they frequently interrupt teacher and one another (Evertson et. al.,
2019).
4. Students in the class where rules and procedures were implemented might have
been less disruptive by their very nature than students in the class that did not
implement rules and procedures (Evertson et. al., 2019).
2.8 Characteristics of Effective Behaviour Managers
1. Respect their own strengths and weaknesses as seriously as those of their students
(Espin and Yell, 2016).
2. Understand that social-emotional growth is a never-ending process.
 3. Clearly communicate rules, goals, and expectations.
4. Respond to behaviours consistently and predictably.
5. Discriminate between issues of responsibility and problem ownership.
6. Exhibit high degrees of empathy and self-efficacy (Emmer and Stough, 2001).
2.9 Classroom Arrangement
1. Students should be seated where their attention is directed toward the teacher.
2. High traffic areas should be free from congestion.
3. Students should be able to clearly see chalk board, screens, and teacher.
4. Students should be seated facing the front of the room and away from the
windows.
5. Classroom arrangements should be flexible to accommodate a variety of teaching
2.10 Encouraging Student Success
1. Get to know the child. Solicit support from family members. Uncover the child’s
likes and dislikes.
2. Never publicly humiliate a child. You can’t imagine how this can adversely impact
this child.
3. Yelling at children all day is ineffective. Try lowering your voice.
4. Tell children something about you, perhaps a funny story. Children want to know
that you are human too!
5. Remember what it was like being a child.
6. Acknowledge good behaviour.
7. Learn from family members, other teachers, or any available resource what works
with the child.
8. Give students choices. Repeated choice opportunities allow students to build a
sense of competence and may prevent challenging behaviours.
9. Help students celebrate their successes, however small. This will help them open
up to more positive thoughts and actions about themselves.