Vector Calculus – Detailed Undergraduate Notes
1. Introduc on
Vector Calculus studies vector fields, vector-valued func ons, and opera ons such as gradient,
divergence, and curl. It is widely used in physics, engineering, and computer graphics for modeling
forces, fluid flow, and electromagne c fields.
Applica ons include:
Electromagne sm (Maxwell’s equa ons)
Fluid dynamics
Mechanics (forces, mo on)
3D geometry and computer graphics
2. Vectors in 3D
2.1 Defini on
A vector in 3D is represented as
A=Axi+Ayj+Azk\mathbf{A} = A_x \mathbf{i} + A_y \mathbf{j} + A_z \mathbf{k}A=Axi+Ayj+Azk
where i,j,k\mathbf{i}, \mathbf{j}, \mathbf{k}i,j,k are unit vectors along x, y, z axes.
2.2 Vector Opera ons
1. Addi on: A+B=(Ax+Bx)i+(Ay+By)j+(Az+Bz)k\mathbf{A} + \mathbf{B} = (A_x + B_x)\mathbf{i} +
(A_y + B_y)\mathbf{j} + (A_z + B_z)\mathbf{k}A+B=(Ax+Bx)i+(Ay+By)j+(Az+Bz)k
2. Scalar mul plica on: kA=(kAx,kAy,kAz)k \mathbf{A} = (k A_x, k A_y, k A_z)kA=(kAx,kAy,kAz)
3. Dot product:
A⋅B=AxBx+AyBy+AzBz=∣A∣∣B∣cosθ\mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{B} = A_x B_x + A_y B_y + A_z B_z =
|\mathbf{A}||\mathbf{B}|\cos\thetaA⋅B=AxBx+AyBy+AzBz=∣A∣∣B∣cosθ
4. Cross product:
A×B=∣ijkAxAyAzBxByBz∣\mathbf{A} \ mes \mathbf{B} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{i} & \mathbf{j} &
\mathbf{k} \\ A_x & A_y & A_z \\ B_x & B_y & B_z \end{vmatrix} A×B=iAxBxjAyBykAzBz
Magnitude: ∣A×B∣=∣A∣∣B∣sinθ|\mathbf{A} \ mes \mathbf{B}| =
|\mathbf{A}||\mathbf{B}|\sin\theta∣A×B∣=∣A∣∣B∣sinθ
3. Vector Func ons
3.1 Defini on
A vector func on assigns a vector to each point in a domain:
r(t)=x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k\mathbf{r}(t) = x(t)\mathbf{i} + y(t)\mathbf{j} + z(t)\mathbf{k}r(t)=x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k
3.2 Differen a on
Velocity: v(t)=drdt\mathbf{v}(t) = \frac{d\mathbf{r}}{dt}v(t)=dtdr
Accelera on: a(t)=d2rdt2\mathbf{a}(t) = \frac{d^2 \mathbf{r}}{dt^2}a(t)=dt2d2r
Example: r(t)= +t2j+sintk ⟹ v(t)=i+2tj+costk\mathbf{r}(t) = t\mathbf{i} + t^2\mathbf{j} + \sin t
\mathbf{k} \implies \mathbf{v}(t) = \mathbf{i} + 2t \mathbf{j} + \cos t
\mathbf{k}r(t)= +t2j+sintk⟹v(t)=i+2tj+costk
3.3 Arc Length
s=∫ab∣r′(t)∣dts = \int_{a}^{b} |\mathbf{r}'(t)| dts=∫ab∣r′(t)∣dt
4. Scalar and Vector Fields
4.1 Scalar Field
A func on assigning a scalar to each point: f(x,y,z)f(x,y,z)f(x,y,z)
4.2 Vector Field
A func on assigning a vector to each point: F(x,y,z)=Pi+Qj+Rk\mathbf{F}(x,y,z) = P\mathbf{i} +
Q\mathbf{j} + R\mathbf{k}F(x,y,z)=Pi+Qj+Rk
5. Differen al Operators
5.1 Gradient
∇f=∂f∂xi+∂f∂yj+∂f∂zk\nabla f = \frac{\par al f}{\par al x}\mathbf{i} + \frac{\par al f}{\par al
y}\mathbf{j} + \frac{\par al f}{\par al z}\mathbf{k}∇f=∂x∂fi+∂y∂fj+∂z∂fk
Points in the direc on of maximum increase of fff.
5.2 Divergence
∇⋅F=∂P∂x+∂Q∂y+∂R∂z\nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = \frac{\par al P}{\par al x} + \frac{\par al Q}{\par al
y} + \frac{\par al R}{\par al z}∇⋅F=∂x∂P+∂y∂Q+∂z∂R
Measures the “source” strength of the vector field.
5.3 Curl
∇×F=∣ijk∂∂x∂∂y∂∂zPQR∣\nabla \ mes \mathbf{F} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{i} & \mathbf{j} &
\mathbf{k} \\ \frac{\par al}{\par al x} & \frac{\par al}{\par al y} & \frac{\par al}{\par al z} \\ P & Q
& R \end{vmatrix}∇×F=i∂x∂Pj∂y∂Qk∂z∂R
Measures rota on or circula on of the vector field.
5.4 Laplacian
∇2f=∇⋅(∇f)=∂2f∂x2+∂2f∂y2+∂2f∂z2\nabla^2 f = \nabla \cdot (\nabla f) = \frac{\par al^2 f}{\par al
x^2} + \frac{\par al^2 f}{\par al y^2} + \frac{\par al^2 f}{\par al z^2}∇2f=∇⋅(∇f)=∂x2∂2f+∂y2∂2f
+∂z2∂2f
6. Line Integrals
6.1 Scalar Line Integral
∫Cf(x,y,z) ds=∫abf(r(t))∣r′(t)∣dt\int_C f(x,y,z) \, ds = \int_a^b f(\mathbf{r}(t)) |\mathbf{r}'(t)| dt∫C
f(x,y,z)ds=∫abf(r(t))∣r′(t)∣dt
6.2 Vector Line Integral
∫CF⋅dr=∫abF(r(t))⋅r′(t)dt\int_C \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{r} = \int_a^b \mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r}(t))
\cdot \mathbf{r}'(t) dt∫CF⋅dr=∫abF(r(t))⋅r′(t)dt
7. Surface and Volume Integrals
7.1 Surface Integral
∬SF⋅dS=∬DF(r(u,v))⋅(ru×rv) du dv\iint_S \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{S} = \iint_D
\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r}(u,v)) \cdot (\mathbf{r}_u \ mes \mathbf{r}_v) \, du \, dv∬SF⋅dS=∬D
F(r(u,v))⋅(ru×rv)dudv
7.2 Volume Integral
∭Vf(x,y,z) dV\iiint_V f(x,y,z) \, dV∭Vf(x,y,z)dV
8. Theorems of Vector Calculus
8.1 Green’s Theorem
∮CPdx+Qdy=∬R(∂Q∂x−∂P∂y)dA\oint_C P dx + Q dy = \iint_R \le (\frac{\par al Q}{\par al x} -
\frac{\par al P}{\par al y}\right) dA∮CPdx+Qdy=∬R(∂x∂Q−∂y∂P)dA
8.2 Stokes’ Theorem
∬S(∇×F)⋅dS=∮CF⋅dr\iint_S (\nabla \ mes \mathbf{F}) \cdot d\mathbf{S} = \oint_C \mathbf{F} \cdot
d\mathbf{r}∬S(∇×F)⋅dS=∮CF⋅dr
8.3 Divergence Theorem (Gauss’ Theorem)
∭V(∇⋅F) dV=∬SF⋅dS\iiint_V (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{F}) \, dV = \iint_S \mathbf{F} \cdot
d\mathbf{S}∭V(∇⋅F)dV=∬SF⋅dS
9. Examples
Example 1: Find ∇f\nabla f∇f for f(x,y,z)=x2y+yzf(x,y,z) = x^2y + yzf(x,y,z)=x2y+yz
∇f=2xyi+x2j+yk\nabla f = 2xy \mathbf{i} + x^2 \mathbf{j} + y \mathbf{k}∇f=2xyi+x2j+yk
Example 2: Evaluate F⋅dr\mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{r}F⋅dr for F=yi+xj,C:x=t,y=t2,t∈[0,1]\mathbf{F} =
y\mathbf{i} + x\mathbf{j}, C: x=t, y=t^2, t \in [0,1]F=yi+xj,C:x=t,y=t2,t∈[0,1]
∫01(t2⋅1+t⋅2t)dt=∫01(t2+2t2)dt=∫013t2dt=1\int_0^1 (t^2 \cdot 1 + t \cdot 2t) dt = \int_0^1 (t^2 +
2t^2) dt = \int_0^1 3t^2 dt = 1∫01(t2⋅1+t⋅2t)dt=∫01(t2+2t2)dt=∫013t2dt=1
10. Prac ce Problems
1. Compute ∇⋅F\nabla \cdot \mathbf{F}∇⋅F for F=x2i+y2j+z2k\mathbf{F} = x^2\mathbf{i} +
y^2\mathbf{j} + z^2\mathbf{k}F=x2i+y2j+z2k.
2. Find the curl of F=yzi+xzj+xyk\mathbf{F} = yz \mathbf{i} + xz \mathbf{j} + xy
\mathbf{k}F=yzi+xzj+xyk.
3. Evaluate ∮C(ydx−xdy)\oint_C (y dx - x dy)∮C(ydx−xdy) for a circle of radius 2 using Green’s
theorem.
4. Compute ∬SF⋅dS\iint_S \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{S}∬SF⋅dS for F=xi+yj+zk\mathbf{F} = xi +
yj + zkF=xi+yj+zk over the unit sphere.
5. Find the line integral of F=yi+xj\mathbf{F} = y\mathbf{i} + x\mathbf{j}F=yi+xj along the
parabola y=x2y = x^2y=x2 from (0,0)(0,0)(0,0) to (1,1)(1,1)(1,1).