Chapter 2
The Beginning of the 20th Century Crisis
World War I (1914-1918)
World War I, also known as the Great War, was one of the most significant events of the 20th century.
It destroyed Europe’s old political, social, and economic systems and led to an even deadlier conflict—
World War II.
Before 1914, many Europeans believed they were living in an era of progress, with science, technology,
and wealth improving their lives. But after 1918, people lost faith in progress. The war, followed by
revolutions and later dictatorships, created feelings of hopelessness and despair.
The Road to World War I
At first, people believed that creating nation-states would bring peace and
1-Nationalism unity to Europe. But instead, nationalism led to competition and rivalry.
European powers fought for colonies and trade, dividing themselves into two
main alliances:
• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
• Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, and Russia.
Each country wanted to protect its national interests and defend its honor. By 1914, every major
nation believed it must support its allies, even if that meant war. Governments thought that war
was acceptable to keep their power, and some military leaders even saw it as a chance to achieve
national goals.
2-Internal Dissent
Nationalism also caused social tension inside countries. Socialist
movements and labor strikes grew stronger in Europe. Many leaders feared revolutions or worker
uprisings. Some historians believe these fears made leaders more willing to go to war in 1914 to
unite their people and avoid rebellion.
3-Militarism After 1900, the creation of large armies increased tension in Europe and
made any future war very destructive. Before 1914, conscription (forcing men to join the army) had
become common in most Western countries, except for the United States and Britain. Most European
armies were made up of peasants, because many young men from cities could not pass the health tests
needed for military service.
Militarism was not only about having big armies — it also meant that military leaders gained more
power. They created extensive and detailed plans for rapidly mobilizing millions of soldiers and supplies
in the event of war. These plans were so complex and strict that generals refused to change them, fearing
confusion in their armies.
During the summer of 1914, when a crisis began, political leaders were largely controlled by military
plans and had to make decisions based on the army's needs, rather than political considerations. This made
war almost impossible to stop.
The Outbreak of War
The outbreak of World War I was caused by a mix of militarism, nationalism, and political
decisions made in the summer of 1914. The immediate event that started the war was the
assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife, Sophia, on June
28, 1914. The killer was a Bosnian activist linked to the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist group
that wanted to unite all Slavic people under one kingdom.
Although Austria was not sure if the Serbian government was behind the killing, it saw this as a
chance to punish Serbia and show its power. Afraid that Russia would defend Serbia, Austria
asked Germany for support. German Emperor William II gave Austria a “blank check”,
promising full support, even if war broke out with Russia.
Austria sent Serbia an ultimatum on July 23, demanding extreme terms that Serbia could not
fully accept. When Serbia rejected some points, Austria declared war on July 28, 1914. Russia
then began mobilizing its army to defend Serbia. Germany warned Russia to stop, but when Russia
refused, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1.
Germany had already planned for a two-front war against both France and Russia (the
Schlieffen Plan). According to this plan, Germany would first attack France through neutral
Belgium, defeat it quickly, and then turn east to fight Russia. To do this, Germany sent an ultimatum
to Belgium on August 2, demanding to pass through its land. When Belgium refused, Germany
invaded.
This invasion caused Great Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4, officially to
defend Belgium’s neutrality, but also to protect British power in Europe. By that day, all the major
powers of Europe—Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France, and Britain—were at war.
In the end, the leaders of Europe were unwilling to back down, and their military plans and
alliances pushed them into a war they could no longer control.
The War: Illusions and Stalemate
1914–1915 At the beginning of World War I, people across Europe were filled with excitement.
Everyone believed their country was right and that the war would be short. Crowds cheered as soldiers
marched to the front, thinking they would be home by Christmas.
However, this dream quickly disappeared. In September 1914, during the First Battle of the Marne,
French and British troops stopped the Germans near Paris. This battle ended hopes for a quick victory and
led to a long stalemate. Both sides dug deep trenches stretching from the North Sea to Switzerland, marking
the start of trench warfare on the Western Front.
The Western Front, 1914–1918 The Western Front became a place of horror and suffering. For
years, armies fought deadly battles, but the front lines moved only a few miles at a time. Millions of soldiers
h
died as they attacked and defended positions across France and Belgium.
Life in the trenches was terrible — soldiers lived surrounded by mud, rats, and the bodies of fallen comrades.
The space between the trenches, called “no man’s land,” symbolized the hopelessness of the war. Thousands
died for just a few yards of ground.
War in the East
While the Western Front was stuck in trench warfare, the Eastern Front saw
more movement but was just as bloody. In 1914, Russia was badly defeated by Germany at
Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Austria-Hungary also suffered major losses, and in 1915, Italy
joined the Allies against them.
By the end of 1915, Serbia had been crushed, and Russian forces were pushed back hundreds of
miles. Later, after the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, they made peace with Germany through
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, officially ending Russia’s part in the war.
The Great Slaughter
As the war continued, new weapons like the machine gun made attacks
almost impossible. Military leaders still believed in massive offensives, sending thousands of soldiers
across open ground. But these troops, carrying heavy equipment, became easy targets for machine
guns.
The result was the death of millions for almost no gain. Photographs from the time show soldiers
advancing slowly while enemy guns cut them down. The battles of these years turned into a tragic
slaughter that showed the deadly power of modern warfare.
The Widening of the War World War I soon became a global conflict. The Ottoman Empire
joined the Central Powers, while Italy, and later the United States, joined the Allies. The U.S. entered
the war in 1917 after conflicts at sea between Britain and Germany. On April 6, 1917, the United States
declared war on Germany. President Woodrow Wilson said the goal was to “make the world safe for
democracy.” The arrival of American troops and resources gave the Allies a much-needed boost in both
strength and morale.
A New Kind of Warfare
World War I introduced new technologies that changed the nature
of battle. Airplanes first appeared in 1915, used to observe enemy positions, but soon they began
bombing and attacking ground targets. Tanks were introduced in 1916 and improved by 1918, allowing
them to move over rough ground and attack enemy machine guns and troops.
Other deadly weapons like poison gas, submarines, and machine guns made fighting even more
destructive. Zeppelins were used for bombing but were easily destroyed. Technology increased the
death toll but did not bring the war to an early end.
The Home Front: The Impact of Total War
World War I lasted much longer than people expected. It became a total war, meaning it affected
everyone, not just soldiers. Governments had to take full control of their countries to win. They organized
millions of soldiers, factories, and resources for the war. Economies changed completely, and people’s
daily lives were controlled to support the fighting.
Book`s Text: The need to organize masses of men and materiel for years of combat led to increased
centralization of government powers, economic regimentation, and manipulation of public opinion to
keep the war effort going.
Total War: Political Control and Economic Organization
At first, no one planned for a long war, but when it continued, governments had to take stronger
control. Many countries already had military drafts, but now millions more young men were called to
fight. Governments also took over the economy — they set prices and wages, rationed food and materials,
and controlled imports and exports. Free trade and normal business stopped because everything focused
on helping the war effort.
The Social Impact of Total War
Total war changed European society. Unemployment almost disappeared because factories needed
workers to produce weapons and supplies. Since many men were away fighting, everyone who could
work was given a job.
Trade unions gained more power as governments worked with them to avoid strikes. Workers were
allowed to take part in government decisions about labor for the first time. This cooperation helped
unions grow and made collective bargaining more common after the war.
The Role of Women During the war, women took over many jobs that men used to do —
in factories, offices, and transportation. They proved they could handle hard and important work.
However, when the war ended, most women were forced to leave their jobs as men returned. Still, their
efforts changed society’s view of women. In several countries, women gained the right to vote — for
example, in Germany, Austria, and later in the United States (in 1920).
Social Changes and Inequality
World War I affected everyone, rich or poor. Death in battle did not care about class — soldiers from
all backgrounds died. However, some groups suffered more than others. Junior officers, who often led
attacks across “no man’s land,” were killed in large numbers. The same happened to unskilled workers
and peasants who made up most of the army and were easily shot by machine guns.
Some people were luckier. Skilled workers were often kept at home because they were needed to train
others in war factories. At the start of the war, people were very patriotic and believed the war would
bring unity and end class problems in Europe. But as the war went on, this dream disappeared.
Class divisions did not end — they even became clearer. The economic effects of the war were not
the same for everyone. Factory owners who produced weapons made huge profits, while most ordinary
people suffered from loss, hunger, and hard work.
The Last Year of the War
When Russia left the war in 1918, Germany thought it had a chance to win. German generals
planned a final attack in the west to break the stalemate. At first, they advanced near the Marne River,
but the Allies — helped by French General Ferdinand Foch and many new American troops — pushed
them back. As more U.S. soldiers arrived, the Allies gained strength and moved toward Germany. By
September 1918, German leaders knew the war was lost.
The Casualties of the War
World War I caused terrible destruction. About 8 to 9 million soldiers died, and more than 20
million were wounded. Many survivors were permanently disabled. Because so many young men died,
birthrates dropped across Europe. The war also created a “lost generation” — men who were used to
violence and later joined political movements that helped leaders like Mussolini and Hitler rise to power.
Revolutionary Changes in Germany and Austria-Hungary
Like Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary faced revolutions after their defeat. People were tired of
war, hunger, and suffering. The old governments collapsed, and new political systems began to form,
changing the map of Europe forever.