MODULE 4
Climates and Climate
Classification
Earth’s Climate System and Its
Classification
• Climate Variables
• Components of Climate System
• Classification of Climatic Regions
Climate Variables
• Insolation
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Air Masses
• Precipitation
These help the classification of climatic regions.
By using 2 principal climatic components,
temperature and precipitation, general climate types
are revealed
Climate Classification
• Provides an organized and manageable
source of information that simplifies rather
complex patterns in the real world
• Also gives us a common short hand way to
describe climates quickly and easily
Climate Classification ‐‐
There are two Approaches
• Empiric/Statistical
– Classes are based on observations and the effects of the
phenomena
– Examples include Koeppen and Thornthwaite
• Genetic
– Classes are based on causes of the phenomena
– based on what major air masses and global circulations
that dominate the climate
idealized continent approach
– Examples include Air‐Mass, Synoptic Classifications, etc.
1. Empiric/Statistical Climate
Classification
The Elements of Climate
• Based on
– Temperature
– Precipitation
– Pressure
– Wind Direction/Speed
– Cloud Cover
– “Climate proxies”
Koppen‐Geiger Classification
• Statistical climate classification based on
average monthly temperatures, average
monthly precipitation, and total annual
precipitation
• Takes seasonality into account
• Drawbacks: omits winds, temperature
extremes, precipitation intensity, amount of
insolation, and cloud cover
Köppen’s Climate Classifications
The Major Climates (Primary Letters)
• Tropical Climates (A) or Tropical rainy climate
– Average temp of every month > 18ºC
• Mesothermal Climates (C) or Warm,
temperate, rainy climates
– Coldest month average temperature < 18ºC but >‐3ºC
– At least 1 month average temperature > 10ºC
• Microthermal Climates (D) or Cold boreal
forest climates
– Average temperature of warmest month >10ºC
– Average temperature of coldest month < ‐3ºC
B=====> Dry climate (arid regions). Eà (polar regions)
Köppen’s Climate Classifications
Secondary Letters
These letters are based primarily on seasonal
precipitation:
f = adequate rainfall all through the year, no distinct dry season
w = winter dry (keep in mind the hemisphere), if 70% or more of
annual rainfall occurs in summer
s = summer dry, if 70% or more of annual rainfall occurs in
winter
m = extremely wet summer = monsoon. A climate only.
Köppen’s Climate Classifications
Tertiary Letters
The third letters in the system are based
exclusively on seasonal and annual
temperature:
a = hot summer, warmest month > 22°C; C and D only
b = warm summer, warmest month < 22°C; C and D only
c = cool summer, < 4 months over 10°C; C and D only
d = very cold winter, coldest month < -38°C; D only
h = dry-hot, annual temperature > 18°C; B only
k = dry-cold, annual temperature < 18°C; B only
Koeppen System: The Particulars
• First Letter ‐
– Designates Major Type (A, B, C, D, E)
• Second Letter
– If with A, C, or D climates, denotes seasonality of precipitation
(f ‐ all year, w=dry winter, s=dry summer)
– If with B, denotes whether hot (h) or cold (k)
• Third Letter
– Designates different temperature regimes and sometimes other
parameters like fog frequency, etc.
Köppen’s Climate Classifications
Examples of Combinations
• Tropical
– Af ‐ Tropical Wet (Rains all year)
– AW ‐ Tropical Wet/Dry (Dry Winter Season)
– Am ‐ Tropical Monsoon (Shorter Dry Season)
• Dry
– BW ‐ Desert (BWh ‐ hot desert, BWk, cold desert)
– BS ‐ Steppe (semi‐arid) BSh ‐ hot steppe, BSk, cold steppe)
• Mesothermal
– Cfa, Cwa ‐ Humid Subtropical
– Csa, Csb ‐ Mediterranean
– Cfb, Cfc ‐ Marine West Coast
Köppen’s Climate System:
Principal Climate Types
• Microthermal
– Dfa, Dfb Dwa, Dwb ‐ Humid Continental
– Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd ‐ Subarctic
• Polar
– ET ‐ Tundra
– EF ‐ Ice Cap (Remember, Eternally Frozen!)
Tropical Climates A type
Movement of the ITCZ
Figure 4.11
Dry, Arid, and Semiarid Climates
B Type
• Desert Characteristics
• Low‐Latitude Hot Desert Climates
• Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates
• Low‐Latitude Hot Steppe Climates
• Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates
Dry, Arid, and Semiarid Climates
Mesothermal Climates
• Humid Subtropical
– Hot, Humid Summer
• Marine West Coast
– Mild All Year, No Dry Season
• Mediterranean
– Dry Summer
Mesothermal Climates
Polar Climates (ET, EF)
• Tundra Climate
• Ice Cap and Ice Sheet Climates
– Polar Marine Climate
Polar and Highland Climates
2. Genetic Climate Classification
Genetic Classification Scheme:
An Air‐Mass Dominance Example
Wet All Year Wet /Dry Dry All Year
Equatorial Low Subtropical High
Warm 1 2 3
mT cT
Seasonal 6
4 5
mP cP
Cold 7 8 9
Subpolar Low Polar High
General Atmospheric Circulation and Climate Regimes
Polar Transitional Arid Tropical
The Thornthwaite System
One system for classifying climates concentrates on a local scale.
This system is especially useful for soil scientists, water resources specialists, and
agriculturalists.
For example, a farmer is not interested to know information on both annual
means of temperature and precipitation. From an agricultural perspective, it is
much more important to know that moisture will be available in the growing
season, whether it comes directly in the form of precipitation or from the soil.
The Thornthwaite system establishes moisture availability at the subregional
scale
It is the system preferred by those examining climates on a local scale.
Development of detailed climate classification systems such as the Thornthwaite
system became possible only after temperature and precipitation data were
widely collected at numerous locations
to emphasize the importance of precipitation (P) and evaporation (E) on
plant growth, Thornthwaite developed a P/E ratio, which is essentially
monthly precipitation divided by monthly evaporation. The annual sum
of the P/E ratios gives the P/E index.
Using this index, the Thornthwaite system defines five major humidity
provinces and their characteristic vegetation:
1. rain forest,
2. forest,
3. grassland,
4. steppe, and
5. desert.
To better describe the moisture available for plant growth, Thornthwaite
proposed a new classifi cation system in 1948 and slightly revised it in
1955. His new scheme emphasized the concept of potential
evapotranspiration* (PE), which is the amount of moisture that would be
lost from the soil and vegetation if the moisture were available.
The Thornthwaite system is based on the concept of potential
evapotranspiration (potential ET), which approximates the water use of plants
with an unlimited water supply.
(Evapotranspiration is a combination of evaporation and transpiration, or
water loss through vegetation.)
Potential ET is a theoretical value that increases with increasing temperature,
winds, and length of daylight and decreases with increasing humidity.
In contrast, actual evapotranspiration (actual ET) reflects actual water use by
plants.
This water can be supplied during the dry season by soil moisture if the soil is
saturated, the climate is relatively cool, and/or the day lengths are short.
Thus, measurements of actual ET relative to potential ET and available soil
moisture are the determining factors for most vegetation and crop growth.
Thornthwaite incorporated potential evapotranspiration into a moisture
index that depends essentially on the differences between precipitation
and PE. The index is high in moist climates and negative in arid climates.
An index of 0 marks the boundary between wet and dry climates.
Thornthwaite’s original equations for potential ET were based on analyses of
data collected in the mid‐western and eastern United States.
The method was subsequently used with less success in other parts of the
world.
Over the past few decades, many attempts have been made to improve the
accuracy of the Thornthwaite system for regions outside the United States.
Thornthwaite climate regions in the contiguous United States are based on the
relationship between precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (ET).
The moisture index (MI) for a region is determined by this simple equation:
100
Where precipitation exceeds potential ET, the index is positive; where potential ET
exceeds precipitation, the index is negative.
The Thornthwaite system recognizes three climate zones based on
potential ET values:
low‐latitude climates, with potential ET greater than 130 cm(51
in.);
middle‐latitude climates, with potential ET less than 130 but
greater than 52.5 cm(20.5 in.); and
high‐latitude climates, with potential ET less than 52.5 cm.
Climate zones may be subdivided based on how long and by how
much actual ET is below potential ET. Moist climates have either
a surplus or a minor deficit of less than 15 cm(6 in.). Dry climates
have an annual deficit greater than 15 cm.
Climate Classification in India
Tropical wet (humid) climate group
Dry climate group
Sub‐tropical humid climate group
Tropical wet (humid) climate group
The regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally
do not go below 18°C even in the coolest month.
Tropical wet (dry, humid)
The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and southern parts of Assam have this climate
type. It is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The
rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year. Most of the rain is received in
the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the
entire year. December to March are the dry months with very little rainfall. The heavy rain is
responsible for the tropical wet forests in these regions, which consists of a large number of
species of [Link] forests are the typical feature of the region.
Tropical wet and dry or savannah climate
Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, except a semi‐arid tract to the east
of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above
18°C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the interior low level areas can go above
45°C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the annual rainfall is
between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives
rainfall during the winter months of late November to January.
Dry climate group
This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the
rate of moisture received through precipitation.
Tropical semi‐arid (steppe) climate
A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western
ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior
and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and central [Link] area
receives minimal rainfall due to being situated in the rainshadow area. This region is a
famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 to 75 cm
annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for
most of the rainfall, while to the south of the river rainfall also occurs in the months of
October and November. The coldest month is December but even in this month the
temperature remains between 20°C and 24°C. The months of March to May are hot and
dry with mean monthly temperatures of around 32°C. The vegetation mostly comprises
grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall. Hence this area is not very well
suited for permanent agriculture.
Dry climate group
This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the
rate of moisture received through precipitation.
Sub‐tropical arid (desert) climate
Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall.
Cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is
less than 30 cm. These happen when the monsoon winds penetrate this region in the
months of July, August and September. The rainfall is very erratic and a few regions
might not see rainfall for a couple of years. The summer months of May and June are
very hot with mean monthly temperatures in the region of 35°C and highs which can
sometimes reach 50°C. During winters the temperatures can drop below freezing in
some areas due to cold wave. There is a large diurnal range of about 14°C during
summer which becomes higher by a few more degrees during winter. This extreme
climate makes this a sparsely populated region of India.
Sub‐tropical humid climate group
The temperature during the coldest months in regions experiencing this climate falls
between 18 and 0°C.
Sub‐tropical humid (wet) with dry winters
The foothills of the Himalayas, Punjab‐Haryana plain adjacent to the Himalayas, Rajasthan
east of the Aravalli range, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and northern part of West Bengal and Assam
experience this climate. The rainfall is received mostly in the summer and is about 65 cm in
the west and increases to 250 cm annually to the east and near the Himalayas. The winters
are mainly dry due to the land derived winter winds which blow down the lowlands of
north India towards the Bay of Bengal. The summers are hot and temperatures can reach
46°C in the lowlands. May and June are the hottest months. Winter months are mostly dry
with feeble winds. Frost occurs for a few weeks in winter. The difference in rainfall between
the east and the west gives rise to a wide difference in the natural vegetation.
Sub‐tropical humid climate group
Mountain climate or highland climate or alpine climate
In the Himalayan mountains the temperature falls by 0.6°C for every 100 m rise in
altitude and this gives rise to a variety of climates from nearly tropical in the foothills to
tundra type above the snow line. One can also observe sharp contrast between
temperatures of the sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal range of temperature,
inversion of temperature, and variability of rainfall based on altitude.
The northern side of the western Himalayas also known as the trans‐Himalayan belt is
arid, cold and generally wind swept. The vegetation is sparse and stunted as rainfall is
scanty and the winters are severely cold. Most of the snowfall is in the form of snow
during late winter and spring months. The area to the south of the Himalayan range is
protected from cold winds coming from interior of Asia during winter. The leeward side
of the mountains receive less rain while the well exposed slopes get heavy rainfall. The
places situated between 1070 and 2290 m altitudes receive the heaviest rainfall and the
rainfall decreases rapidly above 2290m. The great Himalayan range witnesses heavy
snowfall during winter months of December to February at altitudes above 1500m. The
diurnal range of temperature is also high.
The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh
and Sikkim experience this kind of weather.
Climate of India and its classification
India has a large
variation in
climate from
region to region,
due to its vast
size. India
experiences
climate from
three major
climate groups.
These can be
further
subdivided into
seven climatic
types.