AIR MASSES

Air Mass (?)

• An air mass is a large body of air with generally uniform temperature
and humidity.

• Horizontal extent: Thousands of miles and; vertical extent: Several

miles above.

• The area over which an air mass originates is what provides its
characteristics.

• The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it
will acquire the properties of the surface below.
 Source Regions

• Major thermal and dynamic high-pressure cells.

• The main source regions are the high pressure belts in the
subtropics (giving rise to tropical air masses) and around the poles
(the source for polar air masses).

• Generally, the regions of calm winds. There is no turbulent mixing.

 Source Regions

Three factors determine the nature and degree of uniformity of air

mass characteristics

1. The nature of the source area where the air mass originates
originally.

2. The direction of movement and changes that occur as an air mass

moves over long distances.

3. The age of air mass.

 Formation of Air Masses

• Air masses attain their characteristics from the underlying surface

conditions over which they exist for a period of about 3 – 7 days.

Examples

• air sitting over tropical ocean becomes warm and moist.

• air sitting over a desert will be warm and dry.

Formationà radiative and turbulent transfers of energy and

moisture, between the land or ocean and the atmosphere
 Types of heat transfer

• Conduction (solid material)

• Convection (liquids and gases)
• Electromagnetic waves (radiation)
 Reynold number
GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR TURBULENT FLOW 93

3.5 Summary of Equations, with Simplifications

• Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to determine the
type
To of flowusage
simplify pattern
of as
the laminar or turbulent
equations, while flowing
we have collected them through a pipe.
in this section and
organized them in a way that similarities and differences can be more easily noted. Before
we list these equations, however, we can make one additional simplification based on the
• Reynolds
scale of viscousnumber is turbulent
effects vs. defined effects
by theon
ratio
the of inertial
mean [Link] to that of viscous
forces.
3.5.1 The Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number, Re, is defined as

Re == V L/v = p V L / 11 (3 .5.1)

where "land L are velocity and length scales in the boundary layer. Given vair ==
1.5 x 10-5 m 2 s- 1 and the typical scaling values V = 5 mls and L = 100 m in the
surface layer, we find that Re = 3 x 107 . In the atmospheric mixed layer, the Reynolds
number is even larger. The Reynolds number can be interpreted as the ratio of inertial to
viscous forcings .

3.5.2 Neglect of Viscosity for Mean Motions

In each of the conservation equations except mass conservation, there are molecular
diffusion/viscosity terms. Observations in the atmosphere indicate that the molecular
diffusion terms are several order of magnitudes smaller than the other terms and can be
neglected.
 Turbulent àeddies (heat transfer)
When the flow is turbulent, the flow contains eddying motions of all
sizes, and a large part of the mechanical energy in the flow goes into
the formation of these eddies which eventually dissipate their energy
as heat.
 Classification of Air mass
Air mass is classified on the basis of two primary factors.
1. Surface type in the region of origin (Moisture) and
2. Latitudinal extent (Temperature )

1. Surface of source region [Identified by lower case letters, c and m]

with associated Moisture characteristics

Continental (c) Forms over land dry

Maritime (m) Forms over ocean moist

2. Latitudinal extent of source region [Cap letters, E, T, P and A]

with associated Temperature characteristics

Equatorial (E) Very low latitudes warm

Tropical (T) Low latitudes warm
Polar (P) High latitudes cold
Cold Arctic (A) Poles very cold
• There are two broad overarching divisions of air masses based upon
moisture content. Continental air masses, designated by the lowercase
letter "c", originate over continents and are therefore dry air masses.
Maritime air masses, designated by the letter "m", originate over the
oceans and are therefore moist air masses.

• Each of the two divisions are then divided based upon the temperature
of the surface over which they originate.
• Arctic air masses, designated by the
letter "A", originate over the Arctic
or Antarctic regions and therefore
are very cold.
• Polar air masses, designated by the
letter "P", originate over the higher
latitudes of both land and sea and
are therefore not as cold as Arctic air
masses.
• Tropical air masses, designated by
the letter "T", originate over the
lower latitudes of both land and sea
and therefore are warm/hot.
 Classification of Air mass
There are 5 different types of air mass Air Masses are represented by letter codes, indicating
1) Continental arctic moisture and temperature characteristics, and their
sources regions.
2) Continental polar
Note: often a lower case “k” or “w” may be added to
3) Continental tropical air mass names to indicate if they are colder (k) or
warmer (w) than the surface below;
4) Maritime polar e.g., mTk or mTw – may suggest stability or instability
5) Maritime tropical in the air mass.
Global Distribution of Air Masses

North America is affected by 5 types of air masses

 Continental Polar Air Mass (cP)
• A Continental Polar (cP) air mass is a type of air mass characterized
by its cold and dry properties. It forms over large landmasses,
typically in high-latitude regions during the winter months.

• Continental Polar air masses originate in regions where the surface

temperatures are very cold, often well below freezing. As a result, they
carry frigid/chilly air with them

• Since these air masses form over land areas, they tend to be dry
because land surfaces have limited moisture compared to oceans.
Therefore, cP air masses are typically low in humidity.
Continental Polar air massesContinental
are relatively Polar Air Mass
stable (cP) the cold air
because
near the surface •tends to inhibit
Continental polar air vertical
masses are airdry
movement.
and cold This stability can
lead to clear skies and• calm weather
Form over high‐latitudeconditions.
land surfaces (including ice)
• In winter, very little solar radiation causes net cooling of air mass
•
When a Continental Polar air mass moves into an area, it often brings
•
Extremely dry since cold air cannot contain much water vapor
Typically clear and cloudless
clear skies and cold temperatures. This can lead to sunny but chilly days,
• Very stable (resists vertical motion)
especially in winter.
 Continental Arctic Air Masses (cA)
• cA air mass is an extremely cold and dry air mass that originates in
Continental Arctic Air Masses (cA)
the Arctic region, particularly over the polar ice caps and areas of
extreme northern latitudes during
• Continental arctic airthe
masseswinter months.
are extremely dry, extremely cold versions of
continental polar air masses

• Fundamental difference between

• The only difference:cA
polar air masses
and
Continental cP
arctic apart
air from
masses are reduced
shallower than continental

temperature and moisture content is cA is shallower than cP

Continental Arctic vs. Continental Polar
 Maritime Polar Mass (mP)
• Maritime Polar (mP) air mass is a type of air mass characterized
by its cool to cold temperatures and relatively high humidity.
These air masses form over the cold waters of the ocean,
typically in high-latitude regions.

• Maritime Polar air masses tend to be relatively stable due to the

uniform, moist characteristics of the air. This stability can result
in overcast skies and a lack of significant vertical air movement.

• When Maritime Polar air masses move into an area, they often
bring cloudiness and the potential for precipitation. This can lead
to overcast or rainy conditions, especially when these air masses
interact with warmer, moist air masses.
• The ocean's influence on these air masses means that they have a
moderating effect on the climate of coastal regions.

• Maritime Polar air masses can interact with other air masses,
particularly Maritime Tropical air masses, leading to the formation
of weather systems like fronts, which can result in precipitation
and changing weather conditions.
 Continental Tropical Air Mass (dry and warm)

• Land surfaces.
• Hot and dry air over hot land surfaces (deserts and semi-desert)
• This air mass originates over North Africa and the Sahara (a
warm source region). It is most common during the summer
months June, July and August, although it can occur at other
times of the year.
• Unstable
• Since they are dry à inhibits cloud formation
 Maritime Tropical Air Mass (moist and warm)

Maritime tropical air masses are moist and warm

• Form over warm ocean (tropical) waters

• Unstable conditions (moist warm air at surface)
• Generally cloudy and partly cloudy
• Responsible for daily showers/thunderstorms.
 The Importance of Different Air Masses:
The Pineapple Express
• The Pineapple express – a weather phenomena that
impacts the NW U.S.
• Constant flow of maritime tropical air into the NW U.S.
• Significant orographic (mountain‐induced) rainfall
• High freezing (and snow) levels
• Causes destructive flooding November 2006 flood, Granite Falls on the
Stillaguamish River, Washington
pple Express
ery
ger • During the winter months, the rains can
be very heavy. The weather pattern most
of likely to trigger heavy rainfall events is the
plit
c.
"Pineapple Express".
rd,
to • In winter, a high-pressure system over the
Gulf of Alaska blocks the polar jet stream,
cal which may split and form a southerly
the branch across the mid-Pacific.

ms • This polar high may weaken and shift

westward, forcing this southern branch
for
ing
even further south to form a subtropical
jet.
 • As it flows around the blocking
high, the subtropical jet heads
northeastward, across or near the
Hawaiian Islands.

• On its track through the tropics,

the air mass warms and gathers
moisture.

• Once formed, the Pineapple

Express may persist for several
November 2006 satellite image showing clouds from north days to more than a week,
of Hawaii to Washington, a Pineapple Express configuration delivering intense rainfall.
 AIR MASS MODIFICATION
Air Mass Modification
• Air mass modification refers to the process by which an air mass
undergoes changes in its temperature, humidity, and stability
• Air masses can be modified as they move into new regions with
characteristics
different ascharacteristics
surface it moves from one region to another.

Example: Continental polar air moves southward

Wet and dry conditions due to movement of airmasses
 • Tropical air is unstable because it has been heated from
below.
• Polar air is stable because it has been cooled from below.
Air mass Movement (in general modifications)
• An air mass moving over the sea is said to have a maritime track. This air
mass will typically increase its moisture content, particularly in its lowest
layers, by evaporation of water from the sea surface.

• A cold air mass flowing away from its source region over a warmer surface
will be warmed from below making the air more unstable in its lowest
layers.

• A warm air mass flowing over a colder surface is cooled from below and
becomes stable in its lowest layers.
 AIR MASS MODIFICATIONS

• As an airmass moves away from its source region it is affected by

different heat and moisture exchanges with the ground surface and by
dynamic processes in the atmosphere. Thus a barotropic airmass is
gradually changed into a moderately baroclinic airmass.
BAROTROPIC and BAROCLINIC FLUIDS
 BAROTROPIC FLUID
• In a barotropic system, temperature and density are evenly distributed in
the horizontal and vertical directions. This means that isotherms (lines of
constant temperature) are parallel to isobars (lines of constant pressure).
In other words, the pressure field alone can fully describe the
temperature and density distribution.

• Barotropic systems tend to be simpler in terms of weather patterns. They

often lead to less intense weather phenomena because there is no
strong interaction between temperature and pressure gradients.

• Barotropic conditions are associated with greater atmospheric stability

because temperature changes are uniform throughout the atmosphere.
This stability results in less turbulence and more predictable weather
patterns.
 BAROCLINIC FLUID

• In a baroclinic system, temperature and density vary both horizontally

and vertically. This means that isotherms and isobars are not parallel.
Temperature gradients and pressure gradients are not aligned, which
can lead to more complex interactions.

• Baroclinic systems are associated with more dynamic and complex

weather patterns. They can lead to the development of weather fronts,
such as cold fronts and warm fronts, where warm and cold air masses
meet. These fronts can trigger more significant weather events,
including thunderstorms, precipitation, and atmospheric instability.

• The presence of temperature gradients allows for the development of

instability, leading to the potential for severe weather events.
Mechanism associated with air mass modification (broadly)

• Thermodynamic changes
• Dynamic Changes
 Thermodynamic changes
• Airmass can be heated from below while passing from cold to warm
surface or by solar radiation.

• Heating from belowà instabilityà spread rapidly

• Surface coolingà temperature inversionà limits vertical extent of

cooling

• Cooling tends to occur gradually through radiative heat loss by the air.

• Modulation can occur if there is increase in evaporation. Moisture can

be available from the surface or through precipitation.

• Likewise, condensation can cause changes.

 Dynamical Changes
• Involves mixing or pressure changes associated with the actual
movement of the air mass.

• Turbulent mixing at the low levels i.e. surface friction can increase
turbulence causing upward transfer of heat and moisture.

• Large-scale lifting may result from forced ascent by a mountain barrier or

from airstream convergence. Conversely, sinking may occur when
high-level convergence sets up subsidence or when stable air, that has
been forced up over high ground by the pressure gradient, descends in
its lee.

• Dynamic processes in the middle and upper troposphere are in fact a

major cause of airmass modification.
 Recall: Stability

T of parcel > T of environment – buoyant! (unstable)

T of parcel < T of environment – sink! (stable)
T of parcel = T of environment – stays put (neutral)
 FRONTS
Definition: A narrow transition zone, or boundary between unequal
synoptic scale air masses whose primary discontinuity is density.
It is synoptic scale along the length of the front but mesoscale across the
front itself.
Commonly associated with
– Moisture gradient
– Temperature gradient
– Wind shift
– Pressure Trough
– Convergent boundary
What is a Front?
• Fronts are boundaries that separate air masses
• Where air masses meet and do not mix.
• Cause significant changes in the weather (wind shift, temperature, moisture)
• Usually associated with clouds, precipitation, and sometimes severe weather
Types of Fronts:
Cold Front: cold air advancing toward warm air
Warm Front: Warm air advancing toward cold air
Stationary Front: air mass boundary that is not moving
Occluded Front: cold air advancing toward cool air

The direction the teeth or the bumps face

Directions is the direction the front is moving
COLD FRONT
Cold Front
When a fast moving cold air mass runs into a slow moving warm air mass and the thicker
cold air slides under the lighter warmer air.
Cold fronts are at the leading edge of advancing cold air
A rapid decrease in temperature occurs behind the front

o Cold air displaces warm air upward

o Much steeper than warm fronts
o Advances faster than a warm front
o Violent weather – Cumulonimbus clouds,
thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, short, sharp
showers
Vital Stats
• Move 0‐30 mph
• Lift the warm air into which its advancing
• Often produce brief, intense showers and thunderstorms
• Often located in a pressure trough
• Usually are associated with a strong decrease in moisture as well as temperature
• 1:100 vertical slope
• Wind shift is typically southerly to westerly
 Cloud types with a cold front
Stratocumulus Altocumulus
Cirrus

Cumulonimbus
Cumulonimbus

These cloud types usually occur ahead of a cold front.

In which order would you expect them to occur as a front approaches?
WARM FRONT
Warm Front
When a moving warm air mass collides with a slowly
moving cold air mass and the warm air moves over
the cold air.
Warm fronts are at the leading edge of advancing
warm air
A decrease in temperature occurs ahead of the front
The directions that the bumps face is the direction
the front is moving.
Warm air replaces cold
Gentle slope (1:200)
Covers a wide area with its weather
Stratus clouds get lower as front approaches –
Drizzle or steady rain
Stationary Front
When a cold air mass and warm air mass
meet, but neither air mass has enough
force to move the other air mass.
Then Stationary fronts are located at the
boundary between air masses that isn’t
moving

Cold and warm air masses are next to each other.

Neither air mass advances
Areas under them experience clouds, drizzle and rain (even possible thunderstorms) for
several days
Occluded Front
When a warm air mass is caught between two
cooler air masses and the thicker cold air masses
move underneath the thinner warm air mass and
push it upward.
Occluded fronts form when a cold front catches up
with a warm front (traditional explanation)
Cold air advancing toward cool air = cold‐type
occlusion

Occluded front symbol – The directions that the bumps face is the
direction the front is moving.

Faster‐moving cold front

overtakes a warm front
usually occurs in the latter stages of a mid‐lattitude
cyclone
Lifts all the warm air off the ground
Clouds and rain possible
 Explanation

Occluded Fronts: The Traditional

Explanation

Occluded Fronts: The Traditional OCCLUDED FRONTS MECHANISM

Explanation
 Occluded Fronts: Recent Findings

• Occluded fronts can

Occluded fronts can also form when
also form when the cold
the cold front advances along the
front advances along
warm front, forming the
a “T-bone”
warm front, forming
structure. a “T‐bone” structure
 Identification of Fronts
Temperature Gradient: Fronts are often associated with sharp temperature contrasts.
Look for areas where there is a significant temperature difference between neighboring
regions on a weather map.

Surface Observations: Surface weather stations provide essential data for identifying
fronts. Look for stations reporting a sudden change in temperature, wind direction, and
humidity. A rapid shift in wind direction can indicate the presence of a front.

Isobars: Examine the pattern of isobars (lines of constant atmospheric pressure) on a

weather map. Fronts are often located along lines where isobars bend or converge.

Clouds and Precipitation: Fronts are often accompanied by specific cloud types and
precipitation patterns. For example, warm fronts are associated with cirrus, cirrostratus,
and altostratus clouds, followed by stratus clouds and drizzle or rain. Cold fronts often
bring cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms.
• Dew Point: Compare the dew point temperatures at different locations. A rapid
increase in dew point temperature at a specific location can indicate the approach of
a warm front, while a sudden drop may indicate a cold front.

• Wind Shift: Look for a change in wind direction as you move across a front. Warm
fronts typically bring a shift from easterly to southerly winds, while cold fronts often
result in a shift from southerly to westerly or northwesterly winds.

• Weather Map Symbols: Warm fronts are typically shown as a red line with semicircles
on the warm side, while cold fronts are shown as a blue line with triangles pointing
in the direction of movement.

• Satellite and Radar Imagery: Use satellite and radar imagery to track cloud
formations and precipitation associated with fronts. These images can provide visual
confirmation of front locations.
 Temperature difference

The temperatures ahead of the cold front were in the 50's, while behind the front, temperatures
were only slightly colder (in the 40's and 50's)
 Wind direction difference (cold front)

Winds ahead of the cold front were generally from south-

southwest, while behind the front, winds had shifted around
Notice the change in winds and were blowing out of the west. This sudden shift in wind
direction was the key indicator that a cold front was present.
Precipitation generally falls in the
vicinity of the cold front.

COLD FRONT PASSAGE

Before During After

Temperature Warm Sharp fall Slight fall
Dew Point High Sharp fall Slight fall
Winds SSW Shift W to N
Pressure Fall Lowest Rise
 Temperature difference

Temperature difference (warm front)

There is typically a noticeable temperature change from one side of the warm front to the other.
In the map of surface temperatures below, the station north of the front reported a temperature
of 53 degrees Fahrenheit while a short distance behind the front, the temperature increased to
71 degrees F. An abrupt temperature change over a short distance is a good indication that a
front is located somewhere in between.
 Wind direction difference (warm front)

Winds ahead of the warm front were generally from the east, while behind the front,
winds had shifted around and were blowing out of the south. This sudden shift in
wind direction was the key indicator that a warm front was present.
These cloud types usually occur ahead of a warm front.

Identifying a warm front’s passage

WARM FRONT PASSAGE
Precipitation generally falls ahead of the warm front.

Before During After

Temperature Rising Rising Warm
Dew Point Rising Rising High
Winds E to SE Shift S to SW
Pressure Fall Lowest Rise
 Mid latitude cyclones
• The mid-latitude cyclone is a synoptic scale low pressure system that has
cyclonic (counter-clockwise in northern hemisphere) flow that is found in
the middle latitudes (i.e., 30N-55N)
IT IS NOT A HURRICANE OR TROPICAL STORM

• There is a location (tropics vs. mid-latitudes) and size difference between

hurricane and mid-latitude cyclone
• Typical size of mid-latitude cyclone = 1500-5000km in diameter

Typical size of a hurricane or tropical storm = 200-1000km in diameter

Uni of illinois
Size difference between Mid-Latitude and Hurricane
• In the mid-latitudes, there is a boundary between cold dry (cP) air to the north
and warm moist (mT) air to the south

• Along this boundary a counter-clockwise circulation can set up at the surface,

which acts to take warm air up from the south and cold air down from the north.
This is called cyclogenesis.

• In the center of this circulation, there is mass convergence. When all that air hits
the center, we have rising motion because it has nowhere else to go.

• If the upper levels are favorable for cyclone development, then there is a region
of divergence aloft above the developing Low-pressure center. This will help pull
the air that is converging at the surface upward and continue to develop the
surface cyclone.
ve underneath the thinner warm air mass and
h it upward.
cluded fronts form when a cold front catches up
h a warm front (traditional explanation)
d air advancing
• Oncetoward cool air = cold‐type
the mid-latitude cyclone is fully
lusion developed, well-defined fronts appear.
cluded front symbol – The directions that the bumps face is the
• As the mid-latitude cyclone reaches
ection the front is moving.
maturity, the central pressure will be at
Faster‐movingits lowest and the occluded front will
cold front
overtakes abegin
warmtofront
form (as the cold front catches
up to the warm front).
usually occurs in the latter stages of a mid‐lattitude
cyclone
• Once the system is occluded (all the
Lifts all thewarm
warmair
airisoffabove
the ground
the cold air) the mass
Clouds andconvergence
rain possible acts to fill in the Low and
therefore the pressure increases in the
Low and the system decays.
Precip patterns (and types), winds, temperatures, fronts, upper level flow
and clouds that are around a typical mid-latitude cyclone in winter.
 Cold air “catches up on itself”

cyclogenesis Most occluded fronts runs from the north to the south
Occluded stage
• Condensation supplies energy to the system in the form of LATENT HEAT.
Occluded stage
• The
masses and warmer
additional heat released allows air parcels to become more unstable.
• Increasing rising motion leads • Coldto a decrease
air “catches up on itself”in pressure at the surface.

• Cold
at ground level it front moves quickly and the warm sector shrinks as the system moves
• When this happens it forces
warm air aloft with only cold air
eastward
front, the gulf coast,
below

• Eventually the cold front overtakes

ntain barriers the warm front and we now have the
• Most occluded fronts run from
the north to the south
development
Open stage
of an occluded front. Dissipation stage
• When the occluded front develops, Dissolvingthe stage storm system is typically at its peak
intensity or lowest surface pressure during its lifetime.
• Now
e cold air forces cooler air resides on •both
Usuallysides
all warmof air isthe occluded front.
now aloft
ong a warm front
• The surface low pressure center has lost its supply of warm moist air.
and all cold air is at ground level
• This will eventually dissipate
est forces its way
along•a cold
Thefrontrising motion begins to causing
decreaseair to mixand surface pressures start to rise, and the

system eventually dissipates.

• All the warm air is up now.
Warm sector and air is unstable • After mixing, the system returns to stable state
JET STREAMS
Jet Streams
 Jet Streams
• The jet stream is a high-speed, narrow air current in the upper atmosphere,
typically located at altitudes between 30,000 and 50,000 feet (9,000 to
15,000 meters).

• Jet streams are some of the strongest winds in the atmosphere. Their speeds
usually range from 129 to 225 kilometers per hour (80 to 140 miles per hour),
but they can reach more than 443 kilometers per hour (275 miles per hour).

• They are faster in winter when the temperature differences between tropical,
temperate, and polar air currents are greater.

• At most times in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, there are two jet
streams: a subtropical jet stream centered at about 30 degrees latitude and a
polar-front jet stream whose position varies with the boundary between polar
and temperate air.
• A reverse jet stream blows toward the west in tropical high altitudes during the
Northern Hemisphere's summer. It is associated with the heating of the Asian
continent and may help bring summer monsoons to the Indian Ocean.
• A jet stream develops where air masses of differing temperatures
meet. For this reason, surface temperatures determine where the
jet stream will form.

Constantly changes positions.

• Its position denotes strongest SURFACE temperature contrast.
• Weaker in the summer (smaller T gradient) and stronger in winter.
 ET S
O FJ
T I ON
R MA
FO

• The Sun doesn’t heat the whole Earth evenly. That’s why areas near the equator
are hot and areas near the poles are cold.

• So when Earth’s warmer air masses meet cooler air masses, the warmer air rises
up higher in the atmosphere while cooler air sinks down to replace the warm air.
This movement creates an air current, or wind. A jet stream is a type of air current
that forms high in the atmosphere.
Followed by Coriolis Force
Winter

Summer
 Jet streams affects weather
• The fast-moving air currents in a jet stream can transport weather systems
affecting temperature and precipitation. However, if a weather system is far
away from a jet stream, it might stay in one place, causing heat waves or
floods.

• Storms tend to follow the edge of the jet stream, where the difference
between cool and warm air creates the turbulent conditions for storms.

• The farther south the jet stream is pushed, the warmer and wetter the air
will be where the colder Arctic air meets up with it. That makes for more
thunder and lightning, and more tornadoes.
Curves, Blockage

AREAS IN CHANGING SPEED (MOSTLY low pressure developing areas)

Airplanes also fly in the mid to upper troposphere. So, if an airplane flies in a powerful jet stream
and they are traveling in the same direction, the airplane can get a boost. That’s why an airplane
flying a route from west to east can generally make the trip faster than an airplane traveling the
same route east to west.
Sub Tropical jets

• They move north of the subtropical

high-pressure belt in the upper
troposphere in both hemispheres
above 30 degrees to 35 degrees
latitude.

• Their circulation is more regular

than the polar front jet stream, and
it moves from west to east.

• It is produced by the earth's

rotation and flows for the majority
of the year.
 Tropical Easterly Jet
• This is an upper-level easterly wind that begins in late June and
lasts until early September.

• This strong upper-atmosphere flow that develops during the Asian

monsoon is centred on 15°N, 50-80°E, and extends from Southeast
Asia to Africa.

• The jet's strongest development occurs about 15 kilometres above

the Earth's surface, over the Indian Ocean, with wind speeds of up
to 40 metres per second.

• After the SubTropical Jet (STJ) has shifted to the north of the
Himalayas, the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) emerges (Early June).
 How Does the Jet Stream Help Us Predict the Weather?

Weather satellites, such as the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites-R

Series (GOES-R), use infrared radiation to detect water vapor in the atmosphere.
With this technology, meteorologists can detect the location of the jet streams.

• Monitoring jet streams can help meteorologists determine where

weather systems will move next.

• But jet streams are also a bit unpredictable. Their paths can change,
taking storms in unexpected directions.

• So satellites like GOES-16 can give up-to-the-minute reports on where

those jet streams are in the atmosphere — and where weather systems
might be moving next.