COURSE TITLE: AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS AND PRACTICES

Course Code: NRM 452

Course Credit; [Link]/ECTS: 3 (2+1)/5

Course Objective:

After taking this course student will be able to:

 Explain the history of Agroforestry and its concepts

 Describe various agroforestry systems and practices

 Identify MPTS suitable to Ethiopian Environment and conditions

 Describe the effects of Agroforestry species on soils

 Explain the socioeconomic contributions of Agroforestry

 Identify some Agroforestry technologies and their functions

 Describe about the component interactions in agroforestry, short and long term
species managementfor Agroforestry systems and practices

 Acquaint themselves with knowledge and skills on the effect of agroforestry in crop
production

 Explain root characteristics and soil stabilization

 Study agroforestry systems, designs, crop-tree interactions, site amelioration,

socioeconomics ofagroforestry, short- and long-term species management
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO AGROFORESTRY

1.1. Short history of Agroforestry

There are innumerable examples of traditional land use practices involving combined
production of trees and agricultural species on the same piece of land in many parts of the
world in ancient time. Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that
optimizes the benefits from the biological interactions created when trees and/or shrubs
are deliberately combined with crops and/or livestock. Agroforestry is not a new concept,
nor is it a new technology. For centuries, Agroforestry has been practiced around the
world and is most commonly associated with tropical and sub-tropical regions. In
southern Nigeria, yams, maize, pumpkins and beans were typically grown together under
a cover of scattered economic trees such as oil palm. Farmers in Western Nigeria also
practiced an intensive system of mixing herbaceous, shrub, and tree crops, which they
claimed conserved human energy, uses small farm area and conserves soil fertility by
combating soil erosion and nutrient leaching, with no or with low input. For instance,
planting coconut or papaya with a shrub layer of coffee or annuals of different stature
such as maize and ground cover are some of the examples. These are some examples of
what is now known as Agroforestry. Trees were an integral part of these farming
systems; they were deliberately retained on farmlands to support agriculture. The ultimate
objective of these practices was not only tree production but also food production.

By the end of the 19th century, however, establishing forest or agricultural plantations had
become an important objective for practicing Agroforestry. The use of the taungya
method of establishing tree crop plantations became a common practice in Asia and this
was followed in both East and West Africa. The taungya system was widely used in
Kenya to establish timber and fuelwood plantations of pine, eucalypt, etc, where the

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growing of food crops such as maize and potato was used to nurse and establish the
plantations during the first 1 to 3 years of plantation establishment.

Many factors and developments in the 1970s contributed to the general acceptance of
Agroforestry as a system of land management that is applicable to both farm and forests.
The World Bank formulated a Forestry Sector Policy Paper in 1978, which contained
many elements of Agroforestry developments for the small farmers to enable them
increase food production while conserving the environment. This policy paper was later
revised (1991) to give more emphasis on “trees outside the forest”. Similarly, at about the
same time, FAO made a serious assessment of its forestry projects worldwide as well as
the policies it had been advancing such as the use of chemical fertilizers and pure
plantation. Subsequently, FAO redirected its focus and assistance in the direction of the
rural poor by emphasizing the importance of forestry for rural development.

Following concerted efforts by international center for research in agroforestry (ICRAF),

and national research organizations, agricultural scientists began in earnest, investigation
the feasibility of intercropping in plantation and other tree crop stands as well as studying
the role of trees and shrubs in maintaining soil productivity and controlling soil erosion.
Management experts also began to recognize the importance of trees and shrub browse in
mixed farming and pastoral production systems.

Environmental issues became a big concern at the same time and as these changes and
developments were taking place in the land use scenarios.

The age-old shifting cultivation came under closer scrutiny and that it may not be
possible to keep this practice against the rate of population increases and rate of forest
clearing for agriculture. Many of the studies provided important knowledge on the
advantage and need to combine production systems involving crops, trees, and animals.
The most significant single initiative that contributed to the development of Agroforestry
came from IDRC whose commissioned study subsequently led to the establishment of
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ICRAF, first as a Council and later in 1991 to a research center. ICRAF continues to play
a leading role in collecting information, conducting research, disseminating research
results (mostly through publications), pioneering new approaches and systems, and in
general, through the presentation of hard scientific data and facts. ICRAF continues to
conduct training for research and extension staff of African countries and elsewhere.

1.2. Definition of Agroforestry

Agroforestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining

trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural and forestry
technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land
use systems. In Agroforestry systems, trees or shrubs are intentionally used within
agricultural systems, or non-timber forest resources are cultured in forest settings. There
are several terms ending with forestry to indicate practice of tree planting activity outside
of natural forest areas. For example, Social forestry, Farm forestry, Community forestry
and Agroforestry are the majors.

Can you list some land use systems those involves practice of tree planting
outside of the natural forests?

Which criteria can make the land use to be Agroforestry?

Social forestry- "tree growing by the people for the people". The practice of tree planting
to follow social objectives through delivery of the benefits (of trees and/or tree planting)
to the local people. e.g., tree growing for ornamental purposes in urban areas and in
avenues.

Community forestry- direct participation of local community in tree planting activities

on communal lands, either by growing trees themselves, or by processing the tree
products locally. The success of community forestry has been hampered by the "tragedy
of the commons." Nowadays, the term community forestry has been replaced by Farm

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forestry or Agroforestry due to the result of de-emphasis of communal efforts to less
fruitful.

Farm forestry- it is tree planting on farms (a land or place where agricultural practice
can be carried out). It may also include large scale forest production on private farms. It
can be regarded as synonymous to Agroforestry.

Agroforestry- it is a new name for a set of old land use practices. It is a dynamic
ecological based natural resource management system through the integration of trees on
farm and in the agricultural landscape diversifies and sustains production for increased
social, economical and environmental benefits. All practices that involved a close
association of trees or shrubs with crops, animals and/pasture is an Agroforestry. A brief
definition of this land use system is that:

The scientific definition of Agroforestry should stress two characteristics common to all
forms of Agroforestry and separate them from the other forms of land use, namely:

• the deliberate growing of woody perennials on the same unit of land as agricultural
crops and/or animals, either in some form of spatial mixture or sequence
• There must be an interaction (positive and/or negative) between the woody and non-
woody components of the system, either ecological and/or economical.

“Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody
perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land-
management units as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial
arrangement or temporal sequence. In Agroforestry systems there are both ecological and
economical interactions between the different components”.

Agroforestry Key Criteria:

There are four key criteria characterize Agroforestry practices. Application of the 4 “I”
criteria is a key to determine what is and what is not an AF practice or system. These are:

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Intentional
Combinations of trees, crops, and/or livestock are intentionally designed, established,
and/or managed to work together and yield multiple products and benefits, rather than as
individual elements which may occur together but are managed separately. Agroforestry
is neither monoculture farming nor mixture of monocultures.

Intensive
Agroforestry practices are created and intensively managed to maintain their productive
and protective functions, and often involve cultural operations such as cultivation,
fertilization, irrigation, pruning and thinning.

Integrated
Components are structurally and functionally combined into a single, integrated
management unit tailored to meet the objectives of the landowner. Integration may be
horizontal or vertical, above or below ground, simultaneous or sequential. Integration of
multiple crops utilizes more of the productive capacity of the land and helps to balance
economic production with resource conservation.

Interactive
Agroforestry actively manipulates and utilizes the interactions among components to
yield multiple harvestable products, while concurrently providing numerous conservation
and ecological benefits.

Generally, Agroforestry systems or practices differ from other landuse practices through
having dominant properties which makes unique. These properties are:

 involving two or more species of plants and/or animals, at least one of which is a
woody perennial;
 always having two or more outputs;
 always having more than one year cycle or being perennial system;
 high level of structural and functional complex than a monocropping system
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Agroforestry is practiced for a variety of objectives in that it is an interface between
agriculture and forestry and encompasses mixed land-use practices. These practices have
been developed primarily in response to the special needs and conditions of tropical
developing countries that have not been satisfactorily addressed by advances in
conventional agriculture or forestry. Agroforestry systems are mostly aimed to maintain
or increase production from the land (productivity). It can improve productivity through:
increased tree product outputs, improved crops yields, input reduction for cropping
system, and increased labor efficiency. Similarly, Agroforestry can conserve the
production potential of the resource base, mainly through the beneficial effects of woody
perennials on soils to achieve the conservation and fertility goals (sustainability)

1.3. Importance of Agroforestry

AF has various advantages, both production and protective advantage in addition to

provide social value.

Would it possible to improve the ecological degradation through Agroforestry?

Do you think that Agroforestry can provide better income for farming households?

1.3.1. Economic importance of AF

In general, the economic benefit of AF is high returns to labor in alternative to other

enterprise, better efficiency in that improved Agroforestry technology is one that uses
labor efficiently (i.e. ratios of land/labor and capital/labor are high, hence high
income/unit of labor).

1.3.2. Ecological importance of Agroforestry

AF is environmentally sound technology which provides shade for some of the system
components (under canopy perennials, annual crops, livestock, etc.), protection of soil
degradation, control of runoff by improving the water holding capacity of the soil,

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biodiversity conservation, ameliorating the polluted environment through both above and
below ground sequestering the pollutants.

1. Climate change adaptation and mitigation through Agroforestry systems

AF systems not only provide a great opportunity for sequestering carbon, and hence
helping to mitigate climate change, but also they enhance the adaptive capacity of
agricultural systems in tropical and subtropical regions. Agroforestry systems can
potentially play an important role in the battle to mitigate climate change, both by
sequestering carbon in living biomass, soil and wood products, and helping reduce
pressure on nearby forests, thereby reducing the emission of green house gases from
deforestation.

Agroforestry activities adaptation was recently recognized as an important tool to

mitigate climate change by doing carbon sink. Since AF is perennial system, most of the
trees are perennials; therefore, they can contain significantly higher carbon stock than
row crops or pasture. This suggests that, the introduction and proper management of trees
in crop lands has a great potential for carbon sequestration. Establishing AF systems on
degraded croplands and pasture can significantly enhance carbon sequestration by storing
additional carbon in both above and below-ground biomass, soil organic matter and long
lived wood products.

2. Agroforestry for water loss management

With regard to water supply and scarcity focus on the rising global population and the
increasing need for domestic, industrial, agricultural and recreational water needs better
management. For example, Land use changes such as the adoption of Agroforestry can
alter the hydrological cycle, affecting both the levels of water use and the total irrigation
requirement. Trees, in general, consume more water than other shorter stature vegetation
growing under the same environmental conditions, largely as a result of being perennial,

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and their ability to exploit a larger volume of soil to extract moisture and increased
rainfall interception.

The magnitude of water flow is decreased proportionally to the percentage of vegetation

cover, and due to an increase in actual evapotranspiration (AET) and the larger volume of
the root zone under trees, from which water is extracted. Transpiration from trees can be
higher than from shorter vegetation because tree root systems exploit deep soil water,
which is available during the prolonged dry seasons. On-site hydrological effects of
afforestation are mainly perceived to be positive (reduced runoff and erosion, improved
microclimate, increased control over nutrient fluxes, decreased sediment loads, and
increased water quality).

3. Agroforestry for biodiversity conservation

Ecosystems and species important in sustaining human life and the health of our planet
are disappearing at an alarming rate. Agroforestry is uniquely suited to provide
ecoagriculture solutions that successfully combine objectives for increased food security
and biodiversity conservation gains, especially by promoting greater use of native tree
species in Agroforestry systems. The promotion of Agroforestry practices to conserve
biodiversity in the ways through that Agroforestry is more productive, affordable, and
sustainable than other agricultural practices, and less need of land by farmers to survive.
Studies of Agroforestry systems are realizing that Agroforestry practices have a
tremendously important role to play in the current battle to conserve global biodiversity.
E.g. Shade coffee Agroforestry system. Agroforestry systems that are structurally and
floristically diverse can contribute significantly to the conservation of biodiversity within
fragmented landscapes in addition to providing various products. Agroforestry systems
can reduce pressure on forests and protected areas. Hence, they may indirectly contribute
to the maintenance of biodiversity in a given landscape.

In general, Agroforestry plays five major roles in conserving biodiversity: (1)

Agroforestry provides habitat for species that can tolerate a certain level of disturbance;
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(2) Agroforestry helps preserve germplasm of sensitive species; (3) Agroforestry helps
reduce the rates of conversion of natural habitat by providing a more productive,
sustainable alternative to traditional agricultural systems that may involve clearing
natural habitats; (4) Agroforestry provides connectivity by creating corridors between
habitat remnants which may support the integrity of these remnants and the conservation
of area-sensitive floral and faunal species; and (5) Agroforestry helps conserve biological
diversity by providing other ecosystem services such as erosion control and water
recharge, thereby preventing the degradation and loss of surrounding habitat.

4. Shelter and structure

Providing cheaper building materials

Protecting animals, crops and human from wind & sun

Providing fences to protect crops from livestock and wild animals

5. Soil

 Protecting soil from erosion

 Increasing nutrients in poor soils

 Improving the structure of the soil so that it holds more water

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CHAPTER TWO

AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS AND PRACTICES

Introduction

This chapter is mainly focus on the agroforestry components combination in efficient

land use system in line with improving more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and
sustainable landuse systems. There are specific landuse where some components are
present and the others are absent under specified management which will lead to either
positive interaction or negative; more to be production enhancing. From the point of
components combinations within single landuse and management practices, Agroforestry
systems and practices are sometimes used as synonymous. However, Agroforestry system
is more diverse than Agroforestry practice.

What is system?

Can you give some examples of system?

What will be the difference among system, practice, and technology?

2. 1. Agroforestry Systems
A system is group of physical components that is an assembly of object, connected or
related in such an interdependent manner so as to form and/or act as an entire unit. An
Agroforestry system is a specific land use system which characterized by environment,
component species and their arrangement, management, and socioeconomic functioning.

2.2. Agroforestry Technology

Technology in land use system sense indicates an innovation or improvement usually
through scientific intervention that can be applied to the advantage of the system or
practice concerned either to modify an existing system or practice, or develop a new one.
Such technologies are often distinctly different from the existing systems/practices; so
they can easily be distinguished and characterized. However, the distinction between
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systems and practices are vague, and even not very critical for understanding and
improving them. Therefore, the words, systems, and practices are used synonymously in
Agroforestry, as they are in other forms of land use. AF technology is a set of
specifications for the roles, arrangement and management of multi-purposes trees and
associated component.

2.3. Agroforestry practices (AFP)

AFP usually denotes a specific land management operation of AF nature on a farm or

other management unit (field or plots). AFP denotes a distinctive arrangement of
components in space and time, and includes major function, eco-region.

2.4. Major classification of Agroforestry systems

At the end of this section the student should able to

Differentiate major factors that affect agroforestry system classification

Set alternatives for classifying agroforestry systems

The main purpose of classification should be to provide a practical framework for the
synthesis and analysis of information about existing systems and the development of new
and promising ones. Depending on the focus and emphasis of strategies for development
of improved systems, the nature of a given framework will vary.

AF system classification should (i) group major factors which affect production system;
(ii) indicates management of the system; (iii) flexible; (IV) Understandable and
practicable. Agroforestry systems can be categorized based on the dominant criteria of
classification. These are component arrangement (spatial and temporal), role of
components, system outputs, and socioeconomic features. Generally, structural,
functional, socioeconomic, and environmental basis

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2.4.1. Structural classification of systems

The structure of the system can be defined in terms of its components and the expected
role or function of each, manifested by its outputs. However, it is important to consider
the arrangement of components in addition to their type. Accordingly, there is spatial
arrangement of the woody component, vertical stratification of all the components, and
temporal arrangement of the different components.

1. Agrisilviculture (Crops and shrubs/trees) - in spatial (space) arrangement and densely

mixed. It has productive function (food and fodder)
2. Silvopastoral (pasture/animal and trees) – sparsely mixed arrangement. Trees in
pastures system for fuel wood, food production, fodder, NTFP, and other products.
3. Agrosilvopastoral (crops, pasture, and trees) – in which trees are arranged in strip. It
has protective function like windbreak, soil conservation, moisture conservation, soil
improvement, shade, and food production.

Structural classification of Agroforestry systems can be based on

1.1.1. The nature of components

The basic elements or components that are managed in AF systems are tree or woody
perennial, the agricultural crops/ pasture, and animals. Therefore, structural classification
can be done according to the components of the system which will make to be different.

1.1.2. The arrangement of components

The arrangement of components refers to the plant components of the system, which
involve space and time. Spatial arrangements of plants vary from dense mixed stands as
in Homegarden to sparsely mixed stands as in parkland or silvopastoral. The other
arrangement of components can also be temporal. From shifting cultivation cycles of
involving 2 to 4 years of cropping followed by more than 15 years of fallow cycle when a
selected woody species or mixture of species is planted or is allowed to regenerate
naturally. The temporal arrangements of components in Agroforestry have been
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described by terms such as coincident (sequential system; shade system); concomitant
(simultaneous; Taungya system); Intermittent (space dominant) e.g. annual crops under
plantation crops; overlapping, sequential or separate (improved fallow which is time
dominant), and interpolated (Homegarden which space and time dominant).

2.4.2. Functional classification of AF systems

The fundamental importance of all AF systems can be production and protection. It has
productive function which yields one or more products and also provides a service role.
The service roles of woody perennials as factors contributing to the production of one or
more of basic needs such as food, energy, shelter, raw materials, and cash. Soil
conservation, amelioration of microclimate in terms of its effect on crop production can
be affected according to different AF systems.

Moreover, all Agroforestry systems produce more than one basic-need output (largely
because of the multipurpose nature of the associated woody perennial component).
Therefore, all Agroforestry systems have both productive and protective roles, though in
varying degrees. Depending on the relative dominance of the particular role, the system
can be termed productive or protective.

2.4.3. Socioeconomic classification of AF systems

Socioeconomic criteria such as scale of production and level of technology input and
management have also been used as a basis for classifying Agroforestry systems. For
example, systems grouped into commercial, intermediate and subsistence systems. The
term commercial is used when the major aim of the system is production of the output
for sale. Intermediate Agroforestry systems are those that are intermediate between
commercial and subsistence scales of production and management. Subsistence
Agroforestry systems are those where the use of land is directed toward satisfying basic
needs and is managed by the owner or occupant and his/her family. Therefore,
socioeconomic factors that are likely to change with time and management conditions
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cannot be rigidly adopted as a satisfactory basis for an objective classification scheme,
but they can be employed as a basis for grouping the systems for a defined objective or
action plan.

2.4.4. Ecological classification of AF systems

Most Agroforestry categories can be found in all agro ecological zones; therefore, agro
ecological zonation alone cannot be taken as a satisfactory basis for classification of
Agroforestry systems. However, agro ecological characteristics can be used as a basis for
designing Agroforestry systems, because, similar ecological regions can be found in
different geographical regions, and the Agroforestry systems in similar ecological zones
in different geographical regions are structurally (in terms of the nature of species
components) similar.

The main point is that several types of Agroforestry systems and practices are relevant to
any major agro ecological zone; depending on the special conditions of a zone, the
emphasis of the system or practice will also vary. For example, in the tropical highlands,
one of the main considerations would be the protective role (soil conservation potential)
of Agroforestry, whereas in sparsely-populated, semiarid savannas, silvopastoral systems
producing livestock and fuelwood would be more common.

2.5. Other Agroforestry system classification

Major Agroforestry systems or subsystems can be principally categorized based on the

temporal or spatial arrangements of the crops component.

1. Crop Rotation System (based on temporal arrangement of crops)

As the name implies, this system includes all agroforestry types in which the annual food
or cash crops are alternated with tree crops over time. Accordingly, there are two types of
crop rotation category:

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I. Shifting cultivation: the forest is cut, dried and burnt to clear the land for planting and to
return the nutrients trapped in the forest biomass to the soil to be used by the food crops.
Cropping lasts for about two to three years, after which the land is left over a longer
period (eight to ten years) to forest fallow in order to rejuvenate the soil and to prepare it
for the next cycle of burning and cropping.

II. Taungya: the first modern agroforestry practice. While the trees are young and before the
canopies close, the farmers are allowed to plant food crops whose yields become
regarded as compensation for planting the trees.

2. Intercropping System (based on the spatial arrangement of crops)

Under this system, the annual crop and perennial components are simultaneously present
on site but are spaced in such a manner that they became mutually supportive rather than
competing.

Under such circumstances, they may jointly yield higher outputs per hectare per year.
Three subsystems are found under this type:
A) Border tree planting- boundary markers, live fences, windbreaks or firebreaks.
B) Alternate rows- alley cropping or hedgerow intercropping
C) Random mix- un regular arrangement of components (crops & trees) as the basis
of their niches as in the Homegarden

2.5. Classification of Agroforestry practices into system

At the end of this section the student should able to

Classify agroforestry practices into system based on species composition,

objectives of management, component arrangement and function

There are some dominant AF practices in different agroecologies those can be grouped
into single Agroforestry system as per structural classification of the system.
Accordingly:

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Alley cropping, improved fallow, Taungya, Multilayer tree garden, multipurpose trees on
crop lands, plantation crop combination, homegarden (without animal), shelterbelts, and
windbreaks under Agrisilvicultural system (crop+ woody species)

Protein bank, plantation crop with animal, trees with pasture/animal under Silvopastoral
system (tree+ pasture/animal)

Homegarden (with animals), Multipurpose woody hedgerows, Apiculture with tree,

Aquaforestry, multipurpose woodlots were AF practices categorized under
Agrosilvopastoral systems (tree + crop + pasture/animal).

Distribution of Agroforestry systems in the tropics

Characterized by hot, humid climate for all or most of the year, and an evergreen or semi
evergreen vegetation, the lowland humid and sub humid tropics referred to as humid
tropics is by far the most important ecological region in terms of the total human
population it supports, extent, and diversity of agroforestry and other land-use systems.
Because of the climatic conditions that favor rapid growth of a large number of plant
species, various types of agroforestry plant associations can be found in areas with high
human population.

Various forms of homegardens, plantation crop combinations, and multilayer tree gardens
are common in such regions. The main agroforestry systems in this zone are also
influenced by population pressure; homegardens and multilayer tree gardens are found in
the wetter areas with high population pressure.

The highland tropics with significant agroforestry potential are humid or sub humid,
while areas with dry climates are of very low potential. Land use problems in the
highlands are similar to those in humid or dry lowlands depending on the climate, with
the addition that sloping lands and steep terrains make soil erosion an issue of major
concern. Moreover, the overall annual temperatures are low in the highlands (for every

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100 m increase in elevation in the tropics, there is a decline of 0.6°C in the mean annual
temperature); this affects the growth of certain lowland tropical species.

Humid Lowlands - Shifting cultivation, Taungya, Plantation-crop combinations,

Multilayer tree gardens, Intercropping systems

Semiarid Lowlands - Silvopastoral systems, Windbreaks and shelterbelts, Multipurpose

trees for fuel and fodder, Mutlipurpose trees on farmlands

Highlands - Soil conservation hedges, Silvopastoral combinations, Plantation-crop

combinations (coffee and tree), Improved fallow

Tropical Agroforestry practices

Alleycropping; Silvopasture; Windbreak or shelterbelts; Riparian buffer
strips; Forest farming

Agroforestry Systems in the Temperate Zone

Inter cropping under hard wood species; Livestock grazing in managed

plantations; Windbreaks/Shelterbelts; Other Agroforestry practices
(enrichment forests; forest farming)

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CHAPTER THREE

MAJOR TYPES OF AGROFORESTRY TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction

Each Agroforestry technology, in addition to addressing land use objective, it also can
offer secondary benefits. Most of Agroforestry technology involves trees which used in
supporting the productive output of the primary crop to be increased, whereas, improving
microclimate, insect control, long-term soil improvement as the secondary benefits. For
most Agroforestry technologies, the range of potential designs is huge and the amount of
experience with these systems is limited.

What have you heard about Agroforestry technologies?

Can you list some of the Agroforestry technologies in your locality with their
characteristic which makes them different?

3.1. Agroforests
Agroforests can be defined as “multipurpose Agroforestry ecosystems in which trees are
densely planted, thus which show different degrees of species diversity (trees, crops and
animals), have generally a multistrata structure and are managed by farmers”.

Multistrata indicate that there are two or more layers or “strata” of tree canopies; small
and medium sized trees grow under larger ones. Cultivated seasonal plants and
sometimes animals can be found in the sub-wood.

The different plant components in such technologies are

 planted in a very dense

 multistrata
 often irregular arrangement
 upper storey trees can be quite tall,

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 in more humid zones and close planting of the different tree strata will result in a
closed canopy

What can you think about the difference of Agroforestry and Agroforest

3.1.1. Homegardens

Have you ever seen multi structured landuse system around homestead which
managed by the family member for subsistence?

Homegarden has a long tradition in many tropical countries. Tropical homegardens

consist of an assemblage of plants, which may include trees, shrubs, vines, and
herbaceous plants, growing in or adjacent to a homestead or home compound.
Agroforestry homegardens are land-use systems in which multipurpose trees and shrubs
are found in close association with perennial or annual agricultural plants and with
animals. They are near to dwelling places and are intensively managed by family labour.
“homegarden is a small scale, supplementary food production system by and for
household members that mimics a natural, multilayered ecosystem”.

In comparison to the homegardens in the humid tropics, homegardens under sub-humid

or semi-arid climates are less dense and have a multistrata nature which is less
pronounced because of the small number of large trees. Their mixed character is very
clear, though, since they are diversified and essentially geared to subsistence production
and includes important animal (poultry, sheep) and crop components. The gardens also
have considerable ornamental value, and they provide shade to people and animals. The
word "homegarden" has been used rather loosely to describe diverse practices, from
growing vegetables behind houses to complex multistoried systems. It is used here to
refer to intimate association of multipurpose trees and shrubs with annual and perennial
crops and, invariably livestock within the compounds of individual houses, with the
whole crop-tree-animal unit being managed by family labor.

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3.1.2. Village-forest-gardens

Can you identify one agroforestry practice with slight difference from
Homegarden?

When homegarden stretch far beyond homestead and cover a much wider area, it is called
village-forest-garden, or also Agroforestry gardens. It is still Agroforests, in the sense
that it has a similar type of management and also components species (crops, trees,
animals) clearly belonging to the agricultural sphere.

Village-forest-garden is characterized by:

 Lose some of the subsistence character of homegardens and, at the same time, some
of their intensively mixed nature
 Small-scale farmers tend to concentrate the agroforest towards cash crop production
which does not require daily management such as harvesting
 Less daily management
 Mass management be applied and more organized

What could be the difference between Homegarden and Village forest garden ?

3.1.3. Multipurpose Woodlots

Multipurpose woodlots are another type of simple agroforests. Being farmer or

community managed tree plantations with clear ecological (microclimate, soil
conservation, litter production) and economic (wood, food, raw materials for cottage and
village industries) interactions between woody and other components of a land use
system, woodlots deserve a place in Agroforestry. They are often monospecific and focus
on fuel wood or timber production. Their multistrata, densed, missed character may not
always be obvious, and they may or may not include animals or agricultural plants, thus

21
making it sometimes debatable whether they should be considered as an Agroforestry
technology or not.

3.1.4. Agroforestry buffer zones

Agroforestry buffer zones are strips of woodland which protect and separate different
land use systems such as forest or natural reserve areas and agricultural land. The
presence of a buffer zone will avoid intrusions from elements of one system in to the
other. Farmers will be less likely to invade forest or natural reserve areas in search of
resources and be less prone to affect the agricultural land (encroachment by wild animals,
weeds, pests and diseases).

Agroforestry buffer zones are not necessarily agroforests but can also be classified as
other Agroforestry technologies such as sequential technologies of the Taungya type or
animal production under tree cover. Most often they are forest zones which have been
developed and have the multistrata, dense and mixed characteristics of agroforests.

3.1.5. Enriched forests

In their most undeveloped form, agroforests are enriched natural forests. These are often
the first step toward a more intense system. There are two methods to achieve this goal:

a. the management of natural forests so as to encourage the growth of planted, existing

and/or naturally established usable plants;

b. as part of a slash and burn cycle, planting or allowing the establishment of useful
species as the natural forest re-establishes, then by managing the percentage of useful
plants. Because of enriched forests are midway between natural forest and commercial
tree crop systems, they have been proposed as buffer systems between highly cultivated
areas and protected natural forests. Therefore, it is useful for non timber forest products.

22
3.1.6. Forest Farming

The variation of the forest garden where crops are raised as an understory within the
natural forest ecosystem and below the canopy structure. They differ from enriched
forests and other types of forest gardens in so far as the species composition of natural
overstory would be largely intact. These systems are very similar to shade systems where
perennial crops are raised below a natural overstory. E.g. Forest coffee, Tea production.

Did you understand Afroforest well?

3.2. Taungyas practice (TP)

Can you discuss the difference between shifting cultivation and conventional
agricultural?

Do you think that shifting cultivation is better landuse system?

Will it possible to raise agricultural crops under forest plantation in the earlier
year of plantation is efficient full? If so, in what ways?

Taungya practice originated as multiple participant systems where farmers were allowed
to grow crops between the trees in the first year (1-4 yrs) of forestry plantations.
Essentially, the taungya system consists of growing annual agricultural crops along with
the forestry species during the early years of establishment of the forestry plantation.

The design purpose of a taungya would be either to increase productivity or decrease

costs. Without the social context, TP uses the surplus essential resources available in the
establishment phase of forest plantations to grown a wide variety of annual or semi
annual crops. Taungya consists of the simultaneous combination of the two components
during the early stages of forest plantation establishment. Although wood production is
the ultimate objective in the taungya system, the immediate motivation for practicing it is
food production. Thus, TPs are based on natural succession dynamics with climax

23
succession of woody species (monoculture tree plantation. For explanatory purposes,
taungyas can be grouped by the degree of successional complexity. The three types are;
(1) simple, (2) extended, and (3) multi-stage. Simple and extended taungyas are normally
used to establish monoculture plantations, while the multi-stage taungya is suitable for
establishing multi-age and multi-species plantations to improve nutrient facilitation.

There are some general advantages to taungya use are:

 Taungya reduces weeding costs in the first few years and provides a source of
income that helps compensate for the costs of plantation establishment,
 Where fertilizers or other inputs are used for the crop, the trees can benefit;
 with more intense activity within plantation, the trees are more closely monitored
than they normally would be and potential problems would noticed before any major
damage occurs;

3.2.1. Simple Taungyas

Would it possible for single crop species to stay together with forest species for
long time?

The design goal of simple taungya is to establish a long-term tree or tree crop plantation.
Primary design is for the tree, while crops are only present for a short period, usually one
or two years in the tree rotation, the optimal monocultural tree spacing during the climax
phase is normally a dictated variable. The length of the early taungya phase is also
dictated by the tree spacing, canopy closure the resource needs of the crop and the
resource limitations of the site.

The simple taungya design package is cost-oriented and is based around;

 a fast growing trees species that discourages competition, either through allelopathy
or intense resource completion, e.g pines (pinus spps) or eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
spps);
 the use of marginal land and minimum management inputs
24
 normal plantation spacing; and
 reduce plantation weeding costs in the early years.

What can you discuss about the importance of simple taungya?

3.2.2. Extended taungyas

An extended taungya is based on cropping sequence; as the trees grow and the
competitive situation changes, the crop sequence would be selected to maximize yield
while reducing tree-crop competition. This allows taungya use to be extended for more
years than would be possible worth a simple taungya. The latter years of extended
taungya are often used for grazing. The extended taungya management package may
include fertilizers, pruning modification in tree spacing, and in some cases, irrigation.

3.2.3. Multi-stage Taungyas

These practices involve a series of overlapping taungyas. In their simplest form, the
primary species in the initial taungya becomes the taungya crop for the establishment of a
second primary species.

Stage 1. Fruit tree (producing a marketable nut) are planted as a hedge practice within a
wheat crop. A hedge design reduces erosion in the wheat field but also facilitates harvest
of the avellanos.

Stage 2. When the fruit tree begins production, forest trees are planted between the
hedges. The fruit tree being shade tolerant is productive during the early years of the tree
plantation. In this example, wheat is the taungya crop for the fruit tree and, in subsequent
years, fruit are the taungya crop for the trees. e.g., where bananas are planted and, in the
second year, cocoa is interpolated between the bananas. Banana provides shade for the
young cacao plants and a marketable banana crop. In the third year, shade trees are
planted. The bananas are a taungya crop for the establishment of shaded cocoa plantation,
the primary crop is the cocoa, bananas and wood are secondary outputs.
25
3.3. Tree with crops

At the end of this section the student should able to

Justify the reason that most of indigenous and some exotic species were retained
and planted with different density, respectively within agricultural land
Set and give emphasis to alternative ways to improve production and productivity

Across your way you may have seen woody perennials those either purposefully
planted or maintained in agricultural land; can you discuss the reason behind of
this practice?

3.3.1. Isolated tree

Why farmers retained some indigenous species on their farm with wide and
irregular arrangement between the trees?

Isolated tree systems, where trees canopies cover less that 15% of the land surface area
are among the most common systems worldwide. The motives for inclusion of the widely
spaced trees with annual crops would include:
 having some useful output
 where some off-season shade is needed for grazing animals;
 where, as storage trees, simple platforms are built in trees to keep hay or other forage
away from grazing animals, examples which are found in semi-arid Africa; where the
cost of cutting and removal of the tree is greater than any productivity loss, and /or where
the tree offers a shady location for farmers to rest during the work day.
When located with perennial tree crop plantations, isolated tree would be retained from
only two reasons:

(1) They provide some useful output, and

(2) The cost of removal of the tree would exceed any losses incurred by their presence.

26
3.3.2. Parkland

Parkland systems would be similar to isolated tree systems, in that annual crops are
commonly raised below the trees. The difference would number of trees 15-50 trees per
ha. Primary design purpose for many common parklands AFP would be crop facilitation
and because the tree must exhibit a high degree of tree-crop compatibility.

Facilitator designs, the facilitation gains in parkland systems come with reduced soil
temperatures, higher levels of soil fertility, higher water infiltration rates, lower bulk
density of the soil and greater water-holding capacity for the soil below the tree canopy.
Better infiltration and greater water-holding capacity for the soil below the tree canopy.
Secondary output designs. Tree yields are of comparatively low value compared with
the primary crop.

3.3.3. Improved fallow

One of the diagnosed problems in slash and burn systems is declining soil productivity
due to shortening fallows periods. Traditional fallows take long to reach the peak of
biological productivity. Their efficiency is closely linked to the length of fallow period.
The basic principle in improved fallows follows understanding of the system and
selection of appropriate plant species that would be more effective in complementing or
replacing natural fallow vegetation. Improved fallow can be as a targeted use of plant
species in order to achieve the benefits of natural fallows within a short time or a smaller
area.

 Improved fallows are alternative nutrient supply mechanism for regenerating soil
fertility
 Improving the microbial, chemical and physical conditions of the soil after a phase
of agricultural use
 Supplying useful by-products such as fuelwood or animal fodder
 Control of weeds, pests or diseases

27
3.3.4. Alley cropping

Alley cropping is an Agroforestry practice intended to place trees within agricultural

cropland systems, the purpose is to enhance or add income diversity, reduce wind and
water erosion, improve crop production, improve utilization of nutrients, improve
wildlife habitat.

The practice is especially attractive to landowners wishing to add economic stability to

their farming system while protecting soil from erosion, water from contamination, and
improving wildlife habitat. Alley cropping is a broad grouping of Agroforestry
technologies based on a row spatial pattern. Alley cropping is the practice of planting of
two or more sets of single or multiple rows of trees or shrubs at wide spacing either from
nut trees or from trees desirable for wood products, creating alleyways within which
agricultural crops or horticultural crops are produced. The trees may include valuable
hardwood veneer or lumber species, nut or other speciality crop trees/shrubs or desirable
soft wood species for wood fibre production. All variations of this AF technology have
crop strips alternating with the rows of tree crops or hedges. These differ from shade
systems in that there is no tree canopy and shade directly over the crop strips. A second
characteristic is the close intra-row tree spacing. Although there can be some physical
resemblance between hedgerow and tree row systems, they differ greatly in the user
objectives addressed. The hedgerow systems are primarily designed to improve on the
capture and cycling of nutrients, directing these resources to increase the productivity of a
single crop.

Benefits of Alley cropping

 Diversify farm enterprise (improved economic stability) or increased cash flow
 Reduce erosion
 Improved plant/animal diversity
 Sustainable agricultural systems
 Improve water quality

28
  Protect crops
 Enhance wildlife or improved easthetics

3.3.5. Hedgerow intercropping

Hedgerow intercropping (HI) is the establishment of woody species, usually N-fixing,

with narrow inter-row spacing of 0.25-1.0 m and a between-row spacing of 3-7m. Wider
spacing is applicable too, in drier areas because of soil moisture competition between the
woody species and the agricultural crops. Thus, hedgerow intercropping is the practice of
farming annual crops in the spaces or alleys between dense single or multi-row plantings
of trees or shrubs within fields or among fruit tree plantations. The hedgerows are
arranged to minimize competition with the associated crop and are pruned regularly
during the cropping season to add compost or green manure to the farming or garden
system.

Spatial Arrangement of Components

Food crops such as cereals or root crops should be planted at the traditional or
recommended spacing. Once the HI system is established, the space between crop plants
and any tree row should be at least 0.5m. There are three issues to consider, however, in
the spatial arrangement of the woody component. These are:

1. Orientation: The ideal tree row would be oriented east to west, perpendicular to the
prevailing winds, land parallel to slope contour. This orientation provides maximum
erosion control. Obviously, this is not always possible. The tree rows should be oriented
to provide the most benefit and the least competition given the particular environment.
Where there is slope, it is always best to plant along contours.

2. Alley width: The most important HI system design decision is alley width. Alley
width will determine the ratio of tree products/services to crop product and the degree of
competition between the crops and trees for space and soil nutrients/water. Soil moisture
is the most important condition defining alley width, hence tree density per hector.

29
3. within row spacing: The recommended hedge consist of two lines of trees 50cm apart
(planted in a zigzag pattern to form a firm hedge). Trees within the lines should be at
least 25 to 50cm spacing. Close spacing encourages more leaf and smaller branch
production and the establishment of biological terraces. In general, HI systems of 2 row
hedges and wider alleys are more productive (and allow ox-plowing or mechanization)
than those of 1row hedges and narrower alleys. With 2-row alleys, there is less tree-crop
interface (competition).

The differences between alley cropping and hedgerow lie more with the primary design
objective rather than in the use of design variables. The primary objective in alley
cropping is soil improvement with water management and soil retention as possible
secondary objectives. Whereas the hedgerow, although the differences may be small, it is
needed to improve on crop yields and the emphasis on nutrient facilitation.

3.3.6. Strip cropping

There can be considerable spatial and dimensional variation with strip or block patterns
and this, in part, determines the design purpose. Normally, this AF technology alternates
crops strip with strips of woody vegetation. A narrow strip containing woody species
would be directed toward and perform different facilitatory roles in increasing or
maintaining crop yields in the neighbouring crop strips. As the strip size increases, the
woody strips perform less of a supporting role to adjoining crops or systems and become
more important as independent agroecosystem with separate productive outputs.

Slope Woody strip width Crop strip width

(meters) (meters)
0 2 50
5 4 45
10 5 43
20 8 38
30 10 33

30
 40 13 28
50 15 24
50 20 20

3.3.7. Windbreak

Windbreaks are an Agroforestry practice, whereby strips of trees and/or shrubs are
planted and maintained to alter windflow and microclimate, thereby protecting a specific
area. They are often planted and managed as part of a crop and/or livestock operation.
Windbreaks also improve the quality of life around farmsteads, rural residences, and
communities.

Benefits of windbreak

The main reason windbreaks are widely used is their ability to serve one purpose, while
at the same time provide additional varied benefits. For example, a windbreak designed
to protect a farmstead from severe winter weather also provides wildlife habitat, reduces
dust and chemical drift, is aesthetically pleasing, and increases property value.

Windbreaks improve the local environment. Soil quality is maintained through

prevention of wind erosion. Air and water quality are enhanced by filtering and trapping
airborne pollutants like dust and drifting chemicals. Reducing wind speed improves water
use efficiency by lowering evaporation rates from plants and soils.

Windbreaks can increase economic potential. Windbreaks on a farm or in a

community can reduce energy costs, improve crop yields, maintain livestock health and
vigor, and produce specialty products (nuts, fruits, or decorative florals) or a wood
product (firewood, posts, or lumber).

Windbreaks provide wildlife habitat. If planned correctly, windbreaks provide food,

shelter, and travel corridors that are necessary for many species of wildlife.

Windbreaks store carbon. While windbreaks protect farmsteads, livestock, roads,

people, soils, and crops they also store carbon. Planting only 2.5 percent of the tillable
31
land in the Great Plains to tree windbreaks could remove an estimated 80 million metric
tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) in only 20 years.

Windbreak application

Fields and Crops – Windbreaks protect wind-sensitive row, cereal, vegetable, orchard,
and vine crops. While a windbreak requires some land to be removed from crop
production, it typically results in a net increase in total crop yield (10 to 20 percent) and
crop quality. Field windbreaks are especially beneficial in controlling wind erosion and
increasing pollination and pesticide effectiveness.

Livestock – Livestock windbreaks help reduce animal stress, mortality, feed

consumption, visual impacts, and odors. A properly designed windbreak can protect
livestock from cold winter winds and still allow summer winds to circulate in the feedlot
or pasture area, reducing potential heat stress. Specialized livestock windbreaks called
outdoor living barns are especially helpful during calving and lambing season.

Rural Residences and Farmsteads – Protection of farm or ranch buildings reduces the
energy costs associated with heating and cooling. During the winter months, dense,
multi-row windbreaks reduce the effects of cold winter winds and provide energy savings
of 10 to 40 percent.

Farmstead windbreaks reduce wind chill, making outside work safer and more
comfortable. Properly located windbreaks reduce snowdrifts in work areas, save fuel, and
add to the value of the farmstead.

Roads and Highways – Trees and shrubs can be planted as living snowfences to keep
roads clear of drifting snow and increase driving safety. Living snow fences are more
cost effective than slatfence snow barriers, have greater snow storage capacity, require
less maintenance once established, have a longer life span, and can provide multiple
benefits such as livestock and crop protection and soil erosion control.

Windbreak Design Considerations

32
The design is unique depending on the objectives of the landowner and local site
conditions. Accordingly, some considerations are from structural parameters: height,
continuity, density, orientation, and length.

Height of the windbreak determines how far downwind the protected zone will reach.
This value increases as the windbreak matures. The greatest wind speed reduction occurs
in the area from two times (2H) to ten times (10H) the height of the windbreak on the
leeward. Gaps create a funnel effect that concentrates wind flow, increasing wind speed in
excess of those in the open field often causing damage downwind from the gap.
Replacing trees that die and locating access lanes around the ends of the windbreak can
prevent gaps (continuity).

Density is the amount of leaves, branches and trunks in the windbreak. The more solid or
dense a windbreak, the greater the wind speed reduction. The density can be managed by
the choice of species, conifer versus deciduous, the spacing of the trees, and the number
of rows in the windbreak.

Orientation is the direction the windbreak faces. Windbreaks are most effective when
oriented at right angles to the troublesome winds.

Length of the windbreak determines the amount of total area receiving protection. For
best protection, the uninterrupted length of a windbreak should exceed the height by at
least 10:1. For instant, if the height of the windbreak is 30 feet; the windbreak needs to be
at least 300 feet long to minimize the impact of air turbulence around the end of the
windbreak.

3.4. Fauna Based systems

At the end of this section the student should able to

33
 Emphasise on the possible ways though that tree and animal components intermix
to create greater production and productivity

Decide on the right time to allow animals to inter into the forest plantation to
increase the efficiency or reduce negative impact of each components on each
other
Why retaining some trees in grazing land is required?

Is there any landuse type out of grazing land which encompasses both trees and
animals?

3.4.1. Forest trees/plantations with pasture (Silvopastoral)

Have you ever seen when animals were grazing in plantation?

Design strategies for forest tree plantations include having animal-resistant tree species or
the animals can be interred in the latter years when the risk of tree damage diminishes.
With Silvopastoral variations based on palatable species other alternatives must be
considered. Grass or forage crop grown below trees can be a secondary crop for the full
tree rotation or the final phase for an extended taungya. Commonly employed grazing
animals include horses, cattle, goats and/or sheep as well as more exotic animals.

The effects of animals on the growth of tree plantations would be a function of the
climate, site, the type of animal, the tree species and as well as design variables such as
tree spacing fertilizer use and other managements options, presently few general
guidelines exist for optimum tree- animal management. There are available reports that
indicate improved tree growth with sheep silvopastoral systems while cattle compact the
soil, lowering water infiltration nitrogen uptake, and slowing tree growth.

There are some temporal strategies to help integrate grazing animals into plantations.
Cattle in pine plantations operate within a small window during the first year, cattle can
step on and seriously damage young trees. After the first year, the trees are tall enough so
this is less of problem but, by the third or fourth year; pasture quality can decline,

34
lowering stocking rates. With the more edible tree species animals must either be
introduced after the trees reach sufficient height so that the canopy is out of reach of
animals or the trees must be protected.

Because animal stocking rates decline as trees shade under story vegetation, the fencing
required to contain and manage the animals must often be amortized over a shorter time
period, e.g., pasture window with cattle, or against lower stocking rates. The use of
animals in forest plantations also has some hidden management costs, more time and
effort must also has some hidden management which increases overall management
costs. Despite these disadvantages, grazing in commercial plantation is Agroforestry
practice for the three main reasons: (1) the combination of species, (2) diversified output;
(3) long lifetime.

3.4.2. Non-pastoral and non-grazing systems

Can animals interact with trees without grazing or browsing?

The non-pastoral systems would include all other types of animals, insects and fish.
There are many numbers of unusual animal or insect systems that exist. These are where
the diet of a range of animals, e.g., pigs, chickens, etc., can be supplemented by the fruit
or nuts that trees produce.

[Link]. Aquaforestry
This involves the raising of fish, frogs or other aquatic life with trees. These examples are
dual facilitative systems (mutualistic) in that the trees benefit the fish while the nutrient-
rich aquatic environment can help tree growth. As a design concern, because tree roots
provide paths for water infiltration, trees can make fish ponds more permeable and
increase water loss.

[Link]. Entomoforestry
This variation has various types of insects, such as bees, silkworms (sericulture) and
butterflies, raised with trees. Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are a common supplementary
35
addition to many Agroforestry systems. Where honey production is important, systems
can be designed specifically to maximize honey production.

Species that flower in different periods would be one selection criterion as would honey
quality and pollen availability. Tree spacing is important, if trees are too close, then the
number of flowers is reduced, if too distant, the area would be used inefficiently. In
addition to flowers, an agro forestry environment can provide climatic protection for
hives, further increasing honey production.

CHAPTER FOUR

TREE SPECIES SELECTION FOR AGROFORESTRY

Introduction

Agroforestry places a special emphasis on making use of lesser known woody species,
since they are more numerous and less exploited to offer greater scope for success in a
variety of situations than herbaceous species. Therefore, Agroforestry species usually
refers to woody species, and they have come to be known as multipurpose trees, shrubs,
and other woody perennials. Important woody perennial groups in Agroforestry include
fruit trees, fodder trees, and fuel wood species, but the term multipurpose tree species
(MPTs) encompasses all these, especially the fodder and fuel wood trees.

4.1. Concepts of Multipurpose trees (MPT)

MPT are considered to be those that are deliberately grown, kept and managed for more
than one use, production or service nature. In the Agroforestry context, multipurpose
trees are understood as "those trees and shrubs which are deliberately kept and managed
for more than one preferred use, product, and/or service; the retention or cultivation of
these trees is usually economically but also sometimes ecologically motivated, in a
multiple-output land-use system." Simply stated, the term "multipurpose" as applied to
36
trees for Agroforestry refers to their use for more than one service or production function
in an Agroforestry system. The MPT can be said to be the most distinctive component of
Agroforestry, and the success of Agroforestry as a viable land-use option depends on
exploiting the potential of these multipurpose trees, many of which are relatively little
known outside their native habitat.

What properties make a woody perennial suitable for Agroforestry?

1. a high rate of production of leafy biomass

2. A dense net work of fine roots, with a capacity for abundant mycorrhizal association
 Fine root <2mm
 characterized by diversity, nutrient uptake, nutrient cyclining, improve soil fertilities,
and disease control
3. the existence of deep roots
4. A high rate of nitrogen fixation
5. A high and balanced nutrient content in the foliage ( litter of a high quality)
6. An appreciable nutrient content in the root system
7. Purpose of application
 rapid litter decay when nutrient release is desired
 Moderate litter decay where maintenance of soil cover is required.
8. Absence of toxic substances in the litter or root residues
9. Having a capacity to grew on poor soil
10. Absence of sever competition
11. Low invasiveness

For each AF technology, agroecological region, desired products or services, there is a

certain ideotype representing the ideal expression of desired characteristics.

Ideotype

37
Ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform in a predictable manner
within a defined environment. It specifies the ideal attribute of plant for particular
purpose.

Examples

a. Ideotype for silvopastoral practice

 Desired services and products - Fodder, fuel wood, as well as shade and shelter
for livestock and people
 Required characteristics- a species that shades its’ leaves outside the dry seasons
or evergreen should be: Round crown; Browse resistant; Less dense foliage; large
pods; small thorns; Leaves and pods should provide a high quality fodder.

b. Ideotype for tree-coffee based system

 Desired services and products - regular shade pattern; soil fertility; ability to fix
nitrogen; high biomass productivity of material that is recycled; valuable wood; fruit
or other products.

 Required characteristics- If deciduous, rapid flushing of new leaves to regenerate

the shade cover, tolerance of repeated heavy pruning, thorn less stem, self-pruning.

4.2. Checklist for factors affecting the appropriateness of tree planting effort while
designing AF

4.2.1. For each projects site or recommendation sites, identify:

 Prevailing land use patterns

 Indicators of land use intensity
 Socioeconomic context and identify the land user’s category

38
4.2.2. For each tree recommended for a particular land use system or user group
ascertain:

4.2. 2.1. Functional role of the tree within the land use system

 What is the intended function?

 Is the function explicitly stated or considered in the document:
 How was the function identified?
 What is the overall assessment of the intended function?

4.2. 2.2. Location of the tree planting within the landscape

 Land quality- assessing interims of soil fertility that can support the young plant to
grow well and support its’ future development.
 Land tenure and tree tenure- respectively, the right individuals had to own the land
and use for different activities; the right of owning, developing, and converting
some plant species into some forms required for the final products.

4.2. 2.3. Tree planting arrangement

 Monoculture – only planting single tree species for specific objective as a main but
can have non productive function like of environmental rehabilitation
 Scattered trees – planting irregularly though out the farm based the potential of the
site and also based on the type of land use system within the locality
 Dense mix- in land use system where presence of high tree abundance will not
cause negative effect in relative to the other system. Example, planting in dense
different tree species within Homegarden, while, impossible in Village forest
garden.

4.2. 2.4. Tree management

 Source of planting material- identifying whether seed source is unclassified or
classified seed source which uses either for the supply of high amount of seeds or

39
 fruits without sensing about quality or more focusing to produce quality seed which
has high viability, respectively.
 Type of planting material- the characteristics of the seedling should be known from
the point that seedling is gymnosperm or angiosperm based on their reproduction
systems; bare-root seedling or potted seedling as per the silvicultural management
requirement for each.
 Treatment required- special treatments or cares that required from some weeks
before plantation time to the plantation to make the planting material healthy and
successful
 Planting methods – based on the plantation site soil condition and the nature of the
seedling to be planted, there are different types of planting methods. For instance,
complete cultivation, spot hoeing, strip or line cultivation, and line hoeing are the
majors.
 Care required/establishment – non allowing of unimportant components to inter
until the seedling stands independently and tolerate the external pressure through
establishing fences or hedges according to its’ importance.
 Tree pruning, pollarding – cutting branches or stems deliberately; in the same line,
cutting the apical meristem to strength the lower branches or to return some
essential elements to retain at lower parts.
 Coppice management (time of the harvest, harvesting season, cutting height, tools
required, shoot thinning, coppice rotation, replacement of coppice)

Major operations

a. Tree pruning

b. Pollarding

c. Coppice management

40
I. Choose the correct species
Remember that not all trees coppice well. Some coppices poorly, some do not coppice at
all e.g., Conifers

Before deciding to plant a given tree for coppicing; the thrower should consider

 The actual condition of farm land

 The products desired
 The physiological profile of the tree (extent of recovering from coppicing)

II. Time of the first cut

 Wait until it develops an adequate root system developed to recover from the cut.
 The average coppicing species is ready to take its initial cut when it has reached 2
years depending on climate, soil and other site conditions.

III. Cutting height

Cutting too low on the stem of the tree can encourage fungal attack or decay of the
stump, while cutting too high often results in loss of sprouting. For AF species optimum
cutting stump height 10-50cm commonly used 30-50cm

IV. Cutting tool

A rugged uneven cut trap moisture and easily attacked by fungus. Damaging the bark
also leads to disease attack resulting production of fewer shots. The cut should always be
made at an angle slant and clean to permit rain water to runoff on the top of the cut
surface.

V. Thinning shoots for best growth

Retaining straight shoots to the maximum 2-3 per tree, while large diameter for
construction or pole. For sale as fuel wood, can be retained up 5 shoots. If do not coppice
too soon as pre-mature, thinning may stimulate the growth of additional shoots.

41
VI. Cutting Season

Coppicing should never be done at the mid of the hot, dry season, when plants are under
drought stress, plants will recover poorly. The best time to coppice is just before the on-
set of the rain, when abundant moisture will help trees to rebound from the stress of
cutting.

VII. Planning rotation

Frequency of subsequent coppicing after the initial cut depends on the species, health of
the trees, local conditions and desired products.

E.g. if management for fodder, in which the goal is to produce leafy biomass permit more
frequent cutting than does management for fuel wood or pole wood which require longer
time. Repeated coppicing is done as needed either shading is too much on the crop as
trees are nearer to crops or when the farmer wishes to harvest branches for fuel

VIII. Time to replace coppice

Most coppicing species have limited life span. As a general rule most coppicing AF
species can be coppiced up to three rotations

CHAPTER FIVE

COMPONENT INTERACTION IN AGROFORESTRY

Introduction

Agroforestry systems are much more complex than annual intercropping systems because
there are major differences in the nature and arrangement of components in AF systems
in that the trees being dominant unequally. Thus, interactions in AF systems are
continuous, rather than seasonal as in annual systems. Therefore, the course and extent of
interactions are largely determined by the systems tree component. Component
interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of

42
 the other components as well as the system as a whole. Interactions in AF are both
ecological and economic. In general, the success of Agroforestry relies heavily on the
exploitation of component interactions.

It is recognized that “below-ground” and “above-ground” as adjectives to describe

interactions (mostly competitive) between components for factors absorbed through roots
(nutrients and water), and those absorbed/intercepted through leaves (mainly radiant
energy). Research on partitioning the interactions into above- and below- ground groups
provides management options for components and systems. However, the net effects of
interactions, which are the ultimate research goals due to their practical significance,
often cannot be separated into above- and below-ground segments. It is appropriate to
consider interaction based on their net results as positive (beneficial or production-
enhancing) and negative (harmful or production- decreasing).

The positive or negative effects can be

a. Direct effects or result from the physical presence of the woody component in the
system, which causes microclimate amelioration or nutrient additions via litter fall and
root decay.
b. Indirect effects may result from management practices connected with or necessitated
by the presence of woody perennials, e.g. weeding, pruning, irrigation, or fertilization.

The types of interactions in two-species populations have often been described on the
basis of net effect of interactions (Economic interaction).

Complementary
Supplementary Competitive

Tree
Crop and animal output
Output 43
These concepts of observable net effects can also be expressed by terms such as
complementary (when there is positive interaction between components),
supplementary (when complementary force is equal to competitive force), and
competitive (there is competition if interaction is negative), which describe economic
interaction as well.

Since the woody perennials (trees) are important components of all Agroforestry system,
these interactions can be referred to as tree-crop interface (TCI) and tree- animal interface
(TAI). The separation of the interactions is arbitrary, because the processes are
interdependent, and the manifestation of their effects will be influenced to a great extent
by the environmental conditions. Therefore, in the discussions that follow, component
interactions are treated as positive (beneficial) and negative (harmful) interactions that
occur at the tree-crop and tree-animal interfaces. The balance between these positive and
negative effects determines the overall effect of the interactions on a given Agroforestry
combination; an understanding of where and how interactions occur indicates possible
system modification domains that can be addressed through management activities.

At the TCI At the TAI

Positive - shading trees (stress reduction) - shading

- biomass contributions - manure deposition
- water conservation
- soil conservation
Negative - light competition - phytotoxins
- nutrient competition - browsing damage
- water competition - trampling
- allelopathy - disease / pest hosts

5.1. Tree-crop interaction/ at the tree – crop interface

The study of interactions in AF requires the examination of a number of complex

processes. AF can be classified according to the factors (nature of interaction), that are
most affect. These are:

44
Soil fertility (F) - increase in active pools of SOM through litter fall, root turnover and
incorporation of tree pruning & crop residues

- improved soil aggregation, porosity, break up of hardpans/ compacted soil layers

Competition (C) - sharing of growth resources: light, water and nutrients by trees and
crops

Microclimate (M) - shading, shelter, rainfall interception

Pest and disease (P) - reduced/increased pest-parasites, predator population

Soil conservation (L) - reduced leaching, reduced soil erosion

Allellopathy (A) - release of growth affecting chemical in to environment

In general terms, the interaction (I) on crop yields in the two major groups of AF systems
can be expressed as follows:

Simultaneous systems: I = F+C+M+P+L+A

Sequential systems: I = F+M+P+L+A

An important difference between these two groups of systems is the absence of

competition (C) in sequential systems, where interactions between trees and crops are
indirect, rather than direct as in simultaneous systems. The resource competition that
occurs among tree species and between trees and weeds during the fallow period will
have no direct effect on subsequent crops.

A. Positive (production–enhancing) interactions

Point out the means through trees and crops will enhance production

The major types of positive or complementary interactions at the tree–crop interface

(TCI) are;

i. microclimate amelioration

In Agroforestry systems, microclimate amelioration involving:

45
 soil moisture and
 Air and soil temperature relations results primarily from the use of trees for shade or
as live supports, live fences, or windbreaks and shelterbelts.
The provision of shade causes a net effect of complex interactions, which extent far
beyond the mere reduction of heat and light. Temperature, humidity, and movement of
air, as well as temperature and moisture of the soil, directly affect photosynthesis,
transpiration, and the energy balance of associated crops, the net effect of which may
translate into increased yields.

ii. Nutrient balance: - nutrient cycling and uptake efficiency

In a soil-plant system, plant nutrients are in a state of continuous, dynamic transfer. The
plants take up the nutrients from the soil and use them for metabolic processes. Some of
the plant parts such as dead leaves and roots are returned to the soil during the plant's
growth, and, depending upon the type of land use and the nature of plants, plant parts are
added to the soil when the plants are harvested. The litter or biomass so added
decomposes through the activity of soil microorganisms, and the nutrients that had been
bound in the plant parts are released to the soil where they become once again available
to be taken up by plants. Woody perennials have more extensive and deeper root systems
than herbaceous plants and thus have a potential to capture and recycle a larger amount of
nutrients. Their litter contribution to the soil's surface is probably also greater than that of
herbaceous plants.

B. Negative (production- decreasing) interactions.

What can you discuss about the negative interaction at tree-crop interface?

Negative interaction raises due to that all members of a plant community utilize the same
reserves of growth resources such as light, nutrients, water, and CO2, negative
interaction, often through competition, are likely to occur in every plant association. This
competition can be separated into that caused by direct interference (real completion),

46
and that caused by exploitation of shared resources which is mediated by other plants or
shared predators (apparent completion). The major yield decreasing affects at the TCI
arise from competition for light, water, and nutrients, as well as from interactions via
allelopathy are considered are:

Competition for light

The existing evidence indicates that shading is more important than below-ground
competition in an intercropping study. Some studies on competition in an Agroforestry
combination of Grevillea robusta and other spps, maize, and beans in Rwanda, indicate
that the shade cast by Grevillea appeared more important than other effects of the trees.
While the availability of light may be the most limiting factor in many situations,
particularly those with relatively fertile soils and adequate water availability, the relative
importance of light will decrease in semiarid conditions. Since crops differ in their
responses to poor nutrition, competition for light or water may either be reduced or
amplified by a shortage of nutrients.

In comparison to leaf- yielding plants, fruit and seed-yielding crops tend to be relatively
shade-intolerant and should therefore be grown in open spaces where possible. Thus,
crops such as coffee, which is traditionally grown under partial tree shade, can be
expected to exhibit depressed yield as the intensity of shade increases unless they are
subjected to nutrient or water stress.

Competition for Nutrients

There are innumerable studies indicating how competition for nutrients can reduce crop
yield. In most cases, the yield of the agricultural crop is the criterion by which the merit
of an Agroforestry system is assessed; Yield depressions of agricultural crop component
therefore receive more attention than those of the associated trees species. Furthermore,
since the crop is usually the smaller component (when compared individually), its root
system will usually be confined to soil horizons that are also available to the roots of the

47
trees: but the trees can exploit soil volume beyond reach of the crop. Therefore, the
effects of nutrient competition will probably be more severe for the crop components.

Competition for Water

With the exception of areas with well-distribution of rainfall, or a zonal sites with a
continuous supply of below-ground water. Water competition is likely to occur in most
Agroforestry systems at some period of time (may be as short as a dry spell of one or two
weeks). The effect of these events depends on the severity of the drought and the drought
tolerance of the plants. It also depends on the degree of competition for other resources,
especially nutrients.

Allelopathy

 Allelopathy refers to the inhibition of growth of one plant by chemical

compounds that are released into the soil from neighboring plants.
 Allelopathic properties have been reported for many species, especially trees.

Table 5.1 Allelopathy characteristic of some tree species

Tree species Effect on
Alnus nepalensis Glycine max
Casuarina equisetifolia Cowpea, sorghum, sunflower
Eucalyptus tereticornis Cowpea, sorghum, sunflower potato
Gliricida sepium Maize/ rice seedlings tropical grasses
Grevillea robusta Gievillea seedlings
Leucaena leucocephala Maize/rice seedlings cowpea, sorghum, sunflower

5.1.1. Simultaneous systems

Depending on the nature of interaction, how agroforestry practices can be

simultaneous system or not?
As moving out from tree trunk, what will be happen to the crop yield?

48
The overall productivity of simultaneous systems depends on: (1) the complementarities
of resource use by the components, (2) the efficient of nutrient cycling (3) the net value
of harvested tree products relative to the net value of crop products

Hedgerow intercropping (Alley cropping) – there are all tree- crop interactions in HI,
however, the major interactions that affect crop yields are related to soil fertility,
competition, weed control, and soil conservation particularly on sloping lands. Interaction
related to soil fertility (F) and competition for growth resource (C). It determines the net
effect on crop yield. HI generally results in increased crop yields when F is sufficiently
large to overcome the negative effect of (c).

The advantages of HI are more common on relatively fertile, in N-deficient soils;

hedgerows produce a large quantity of prunings in areas of subhumid and humid
environmental where there is adequate water for both hedge and crop growth. Whereas,
in semiarid environment (adequate water, acid infertile soils), hedgerows produce too
little biomass and/or become too competitive to benefit crops. When competition is
reduced, it may increase crop yields. In Agroclimates suited for HI, it will produce
moderate cereal yields through providing N, but not supply adequate N or P to realize
maximum yields.

Trees in cropland systems (scattered trees (parklands), boundary planting, intercropping

with annual crops between widely spaced rows of trees)
 The degree of interaction (tree/crop) increases with increasing tree density, from
low density in scattered tree systems to high density in tree/crop intercropping
systems.

 three distinct tree/crop interaction zones can be distinguished in these systems: (1)
a zone of light and root competition (under the tree crown); (2) a zone of root
competition (beyond the tree crown); (3) open cropped areas (tree from tree
interference)

49
 The extent of interaction between trees and crops in zone of light and root competition
and zone of root competition depends on tree species, climate and soil, and spreads
progressively overtime with age and size of the tree. The major tree-soil- crop
interactions that affect crop yields in trees in cropland systems are mostly related to
chemical aspect of soil fertility, water infiltration, and microclimate (especially shading).

Tree species improve soil fertility and modify the microclimate both favorably and
unfavorably under their canopies depending on tree species; the magnitude of charge
depends on canopy and root characteristics, age and size of trees, and density. Based on
their nature of contributing for soil fertility through BNF, density of trees increased from
scattered to parkland if the crop yield will increase.

Allelopathy effects under filed conditions were mostly concerned with poor germination
and early growth of seedlings either under trees or after the application of tree prunnings.
Allelopathy could be beneficial through reduced weed emergency but the scope for
selective reduction of weeds without affecting crops has not been investigating in AF
systems.

5.1.2. Sequential systems

Improved fallow- in the rotation system of tree fallows followed by crops, three distinct
phases can be distinguished based on the major soil changes that occur

i. Restoration (fallow) phase- accumulation of nutrients stocks in standing trees biomass

through gaining from natural process (BNF) and recovery of lost nutrient (uptake from
deeper soil layer)

ii. Nutrient transfer (fallow clearing) phase- nutrient stocks in the vegetation are added to
the soil through fallow clearing

50
iii. Degradation (cropping) phase- when nutrients are depleted through crop harvest,
weeds and pests may increase, and soil conditions deteriorate. The major interaction
that affects crop yields is soil fertility and competition (weed)

5.2. Tree-animal interaction/at the tree-animal interface

A. Positive (production–enhancing) interactions

Tropical animals tend to seek shade. This tendency may significantly reduce the time
spent in grazing in the open. Consequently, depending on the degree of climatic stress,
the breed and the type of animal, the quality and quantity of available pasture, total feed
intake may be reduced. However, except in extreme situations, this may be balanced by
the reduced energy expenditure of the animal for thermoregulation, which may be the
main reason that animals in shade generally show higher feed conversion and ultimately
higher weight gain or milk production.

Furthermore, shade may have a beneficial effect on animal reproduction. For example, in
Malasia, the shade or rubber trees reduced air temperature by 1-5 oC, which, in turn,
contributed to a more favorable environments sheep and poultry production. Studies of
positive effects of animals on associated trees are scarce. However, these interactions are
appearing to be significant: animals gathered under shade trees may naturally fertilize the
trees through their manure; they may alleviate the competition, e.g. of grass, to which the
tree is exposed.

B. Negative (production- decreasing) interactions

The most important negative interactions between animals and plants can be direct effect:
Low quality of, or toxic components within, tree fodder can adversely affect livestock
production. Mechanical damage of trees or deterioration of soil properties, e.g., through
compaction can have a negative impact on the woody perennial component. While tree

51
fodder holds great promise, particularly as a dry-season supplement in semiarid areas, its
value should not be overestimated.

Many species contain secondary compounds that reduce the feed value. The presence of
high levels of phenolic compounds (tannins) or strong odors found in the leaves of
species such as Cassia siamea and Gliricidia sepium may reduce palatability or
acceptability of the fodder. In addition, digestibility can be low and the leaves may
contain toxins or toxic concentrations of certain micronutrients. The most widely
discussed problem is probably that of the toxic compound mimosine found in Leucaena
fodder. The other includes cyanogenic glucosides in Acacia species.

Table 5.2 Toxic or irritant compounds in selected tree fodder species

Species/Feed Compound
Acacia Cyanoglucosides, Fluoracetate, Tannins
Banana leaves Tannins
Calliandra calothyrsus Tannins
Cliricidia sepium Tannins
Leucaena spp Mimosine (esp,Young leaves, stems and seeds).
Prosopos spp. Tannins

5.3. Component Management

The magnitude of interactive effects between trees and other components of Agroforestry
system depends on the characteristics of:

the species,

their planting density, and

52
 Spatial arrangement and management of the trees

Manipulating densities and arrangement is probably the most powerful method for
capitalizing on beneficial effects of trees while reducing negative ones. However, in some
cases, for example, when trees are used as supports for crop plants, the planting density
of the trees is determined by the planting density of the crops. Therefore, in these cases,
choosing wider plant spacing for trees with larger crowns may not be a valid option:
under such conditions, knowledge of the light transmission characteristics of the tree
crowns and of the options for tree management will become important.

Several characteristics could be identified as desirable attributes for trees in Agroforestry

systems; but often it is not possible to choose trees with all these characteristics, either
because other plants are already established, or because production or protection goals
favor the choice other tree. Whenever a tree species with all the desired characteristics is
not available (which is most likely to be the case), tree crowns and roots can be
manipulated through management operations, mainly by pruning and thinning. Other
common management operations such as fertilization, application of mulch and manure,
cut-and-carry fodder systems, and confinement or rotation of the animals can also be
employed. In any case, the goals of management practices should be to increase the
production of the desired products and to decrease growth and, hence, competition of
undesired components.

Increase the growth of the associated intercrop by providing green manure and by
allowing more light to penetrate to the crop. Below–ground competition may also be
reduced as a result of pruning- induced root die-back. These observations also apply to
pruning or pollarding operations on trees grown for shade or as live supports, such as
legumes of the genera Erythtrina, which have large thick leaves and high rates of
biomass production when grown as a shade tree, will require more intensive pruning than
trees with a less dense canopy. Under conditions of severe below-ground competition,

53
 root pruning operations or trenching may eliminate, or at least strongly reduce, the
negative effects of the trees on the intercrop.

Self check questions

I. Say either true or false

1. Agroforestry tree species are those retained and developed to have more than two
outputs or functions
2. Fruit trees, fodder trees, fuelwood trees, and lumber trees in AF systems are only
from woody species
3. Having unsecured land tenure can play great role in planting trees within landscape
4. The right time to cut for coppicing is before rain start

II. Choose the correct answer

1. Which one is not the characteristic of multipurpose trees

A) Symbiotic B) having low C:N in litter
C) Having high capacity to invade D) low competition E) None
2. Indentify the required characteristics for shade system agroforestry ideotype
A) Evergreen B) thorniness C) sensitive to rapid pruning
D) More toxic E) All
3. Which one is not checklist for recommendation site selection?
A) Current landuse pattern B) willingness C) wealth status D) All E) none
4. Among the following checklist on the recommended multipurpose tree; which one do
not indicate the functional role
A) Future expectation B) documentation of the function C) method of identification
D) none
5. All are about tree tenure except
A) Right to the plantation site B) right to plant seedling C) right to harvest D) right to
sell products
54
6. From management operation applied on multipurpose tree; pruning is
A) Cutting apical meristem B) cutting branches C) cutting stems D) A&B E) B&C

CHAPTER SIX

AGROFORESTRY FOR SOIL MANAGEMENT

At the end of this chapter the student should able to

Classify and prioritize alternative land uses based on their level of sustainability

Understand the importance of agroforestry in soil protection from erosion

Discuss role of agroforestry in improving the soil chemistry that can make the land
to be productive and sustainable

Can Agroforestry conserve soil from degradation?

How can soil fertility improved under agroforestry landuse system?

Introduction

The principal adverse effect of erosion is lowering of fertility, through removal of organic
matter and nutrients in eroded sediment. The relations between Agroforestry and soil
conservation vary with climate, soil type and landforms. In its’ broader sense, soil
conservation includes both control of erosion and maintenance of fertility. The primary
objective of soil conservation is maintenance of fertility. To achieve this, control of
erosion is one necessary measure. Accordingly, maintenance of the physical, chemical
and biological properties of soil, including nutrient status leads to soil fertility.

Soil management in agroforestry includes control of erosion and maintenance and

improvement of soil fertility sustainability. Agroforestry has a potential for erosion
control through the soil cover provided by tree canopy and litter. It is now widely
55
believed that agroforestry holds considerable potential as a major land-management
alternative for conserving soil as well as maintaining soil fertility and productivity. This
understanding is generated from that trees and other vegetation improve the soil beneath
them.

Trees and shrubs in Agroforestry plays important role in erosion control through direct
use to increase soil cover by litter and pruning, to provide hedgerow barriers, to maintain
terraces through soil accumulation upslope of hedgerows, to increase soil resistance to
erosion, by maintenance of organic matter. The incorporation of trees and crops that are
able to biologically fix nitrogen is fairly common in tropical Agroforestry systems. Non
N-fixing trees can also enhance soil physical, chemical and biological properties by
adding significant amount of above and belowground organic matter and releasing and
recycling nutrients in Agroforestry systems.

6.1. EFFECT OF TREES ON SOIL

At the end of this section the student should able to

Discuss the effect of trees on soil status

Differentiate both beneficial and adverse effect of trees on soil

The inclusion of compatible and desirable species of woody perennials in land-use

systems where there was no prior involvement of woody species can result to marked
improvement in soil fertility. There are several possible mechanisms for this, which
include:

 Increase in the organic matter content of soil through addition of leaf litter and other
plant parts;

 An efficient nutrient cycling within the system and consequently more efficient
utilization of both native as well as applied (costly) nutrients;

56
  Biological nitrogen fixation (where applicable) and solubilization of relatively
unavailable nutrients, for example, phosphate through the activity of mycorrhizae
and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria;

 Increase in the plant cycling fraction of nutrients and resultant reduction in the loss
of nutrients beyond the nutrient absorbing zone of soil;

 Complementary interaction between the component species of the system, resulting

in more efficient sharing of nutrients among the components;

 Additional nutrient economy because of different nutrient absorbing zones of the

root systems of the component species;

 Moderating effect of soil organic matter on extreme soil reactions and consequent
nutrient release/availability patterns.

The improvement in organic matter status of the soil can result in increased activity of the
favourable microorganisms in the root zone. In addition to the nutrient relations
mentioned earlier, such micro-organisms may also produce growth-promoting substances
through desirable interaction and cause commensalistic effect on the growth of plant
species.

Inclusion of trees and woody perennials on farmlands markedly improves the physical
conditions of soil in the long run: permeability, water-holding capacity, aggregate
stability, and soil temperature regime are all improved, though slowly, so that the soil is
made a better medium for plant growth.

The soil-conservation and erosion-reducing role of trees is one of the most widely
acclaimed and compelling reasons for including trees on farming systems and farmlands
that are prone to erosion hazards. Trees not only protect the farmland directly involved,
but also impart stability to the ecosystem and reduce the rate of siltation of dams and
reservoirs.
57
6.1.1. Beneficial Effects

Does a tree have positive effect within the rhizosphere?

Can you list the possible ways through tree benefits the soil?

Beneficial effects of trees from things added to the soil system

Increase of organic matter: one of the main avenues of organic matter addition to soils
by trees is believed to be through continuous degeneration like litter or sloughing-off of
roots of living trees like exudates.

Nitrogen fixation: nitrogen content of the soil increases when compared with that of
before fertilizer agroforestry trees introduced into the land use system where trees were
not included.

Nutrient uptake: synonymously, nutrient uplifting or pumping. In general, trees are

more efficient than herbaceous plants in taking up nutrients released by the weathering of
deeper soil horizons. Essential nutrients such as Potassium, phosphorus, calcium and
magnesium, and other micronutrients are released by rock-weathering, particularly in the
soil horizons which tree roots often penetrate. Thus, nutrients in deeper soil horizons, that
are unavailable to shallow-rooted crops, are taken up by deep-rooted trees.

Exudation of growth promoting substances into the rhizosphere: Root exudates

include amino acids, organic acids, carbohydrates, sugars, vitamins, mucilage and
proteins. The exudates act as messengers that stimulate biological and physical
interactions between roots and soil organisms. They modify the biochemical and physical
properties of the rhizosphere and contribute to root growth and plant survival.

58
Beneficial effect of trees on the soil from the reduction of losses from the soil

Protection from erosion: The most serious effect of erosion is loss of soil organic matter
and nutrients, and the resulting reduction in crop yield. Trees cover reduces erosion to
low levels, primarily through ground surface litter cover and understory vegetation.

Nutrient retrieval (enhanced nutrient-use efficiency): It is commonly supposed that tree-

root systems intercept, absorb, and recycle nutrients in the soil that would otherwise be
lost through leaching, thereby making a more closed nutrient cycle. The mycorrhizal
systems associated with tree roots are an agent in the nutrient cycling process; they
penetrate a large proportion of the soil, facilitating the uptake of nutrients, which can
move only short distances by diffusion.

Beneficial effect of trees on the physical properties of the soil

Maintenance or improvement of physical properties: The enhancement of soil

structure, porosity, moisture retention, and erosion resistance under tree cover.
Modification of extremes of soil temperature: Furthermore, ground surface litter cover
greatly reduces the high ground-surface temperatures of bare soils in the tropics.

Beneficial effect of trees on the chemical properties of the soil

Reduction of acidity: Trees tend to moderate the effects of leaching through the addition
of bases to the soil surface.

Reduction of salinity or sodicity: afforestation has been used successfully to reclaim

saline and alkaline soils. This implies reduction of the top soil pH.

Effects of shading: Shade lowers ground-surface temperatures, which may reduce the
rate of loss of soil organic matter by oxidation.

59
6.1.2. Trees Adverse Effects on the Soil

List the negative impact of trees on the soil

Which property of the soil will be heavily affected from the tree?

Trees, both as individual plants and when grown in association with herbaceous plants,
can have adverse effects on soils.

Loss of organic matter and nutrients in tree harvest: Trees accumulate large quantities
of nutrients in their biomass, part of which is removed in harvest. The problem is greatest
where there is whole-tree harvesting. From a soil management point of view, it is
desirable to allow all branches and litter to decay in situ and even to return bark.

Nutrient competition between trees and crops: This problem is most likely to be
serious when trees or shrubs have an established root system that dominates that of newly
planted annual crops.

6.2. NUTRIENT CYCLING IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

At the end of this section the student should able to

Discuss the processes of nutrient movements

Identify the main source of nutrients in the agroforestry system landuse nutrient
cycling

In a soil-plant system, plant nutrients are in a state of continuous, dynamic transfer. The
plants take up the nutrients from the soil and use them for metabolic processes. Some of
the plant parts such as dead leaves and roots are returned to the soil during the plant's
growth, and, depending upon the type of land use and the nature of plants, plant parts are
added to the soil when the plants are harvested. The litter or biomass so added
decomposes through the activity of soil microorganisms, and the nutrients that had been

60
bound in the plant parts are released to the soil where they become once again available
to be taken up by plants. In a limited sense, nutrient cycling refers to this continuous
transfer of nutrients from soil to plant and back to soil, and this is the sense in which it is
used in this chapter. In a broader sense, nutrient cycling involves the continuous transfer
of nutrients within different components of the ecosystem and includes processes such as
weathering of minerals, activities of soil biota, and other transformations occurring in the
biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere

Nutrient cycling occurs to varying degrees in all land-use systems. Agroforestry and
other tree-based systems are commonly credited with more efficient nutrient cycling
which in turn, a greater potential to improve soil fertility than many other land use
systems because of the presence of woody perennials in the system and their suggested
beneficial effects on the soil. Woody perennials have more extensive and deeper root
systems than herbaceous plants and thus have a potential to capture and recycle a larger
amount of nutrients. Their litter contribution to the soil's surface is probably also greater
than that of herbaceous plants.

Nutrient cycling in an agroforestry system noted that the cycles for nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and other elements. The nutrient cycle in Agroforestry consists of inputs into
(gains), output from (losses), and internal turnover or transfer within the system. Inputs of
nutrients in agroforestry come through fertilizer, rain, dust, organic materials from
outside the system, and N2 fixation (for N) as well as weathering of rocks (for other
elements); the principal outputs are derived from erosion, percolation (leaching), and
crop harvest (for all nutrients), denitrification and volatilization (for N), and burning (for
N and S).

Nutrient cycling in agroforestry systems falls between forest ecosystem which known
with high rate of nutrient turnover and agricultural system with low rate of nutrient
turnover. More nutrients in the agroforestry system are re-used by plants compared to
agricultural systems before being lost from the system. The major difference between
61
agroforestry and other land-use systems lies in the transfer or turn-over of nutrients
within the system from one component to the other, and the possibility of managing the
system or its components to facilitate increased rates of turn-over without affecting the
overall productivity of the system.

6.3. SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

At the end of this section the student should able to

Define the soil organic matter

Discuss both formation and function of soil organic matter

Most of the solid material (approximately 95% to 98%) is mineral in nature. The
remaining 2 to 5 percent of the solid material is organic matter. Soil organic matter
(SOM) consists primarily of decayed or decaying plant and animal residues and is a very
important soil component. Soil organic matter encompasses all organic components of a
soil: fresh residues; decomposing organic matter; stable organic matter; living organisms.
It helps to (1) improve soil’s physical condition, (2) increase water infiltration and water
holding capacity, (3) improve soil tilth by enhancing soil aggregate stability, (4) decrease
soil erosion losses, (5) supply available plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur),
and (6) augment the soils’ cation exchange capacity.

The primary or original source of SOM is the primary producers (the higher plants). This
organic material is subsequently consumed and decomposed by soil organisms. Woody
perennials differ from herbaceous crops in the rate and time of addition of organic
materials, and in the nature of the materials added. Trees provide far more woody and
other lignified materials than herbaceous crops, which in turn, affects the rate of
decomposition and humus formation. Therefore, agroforestry systems play great role in
maintaining SOM which necessarily required for soil management to sustain productivity
in relative to agricultural land use system. Presence of trees in agricultural land can have

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potential to update its’ capacity to give more products and sustainable while not always
similar to the other land use without woody.

Self checking questions

1. The principal effect of unreserved landuse is promoting soil fertility
2. Non woody species in Agroforestry plays less role in soil management than other
component
3. Any woody species in Agroforestry based landuse system has either protection or
maintenance role
4. Tree species with deep taproot is expected to have better potential to improve topsoil
through nutrient pumping or uplifting

5. Only fertilizer trees are required to enhance soil physical and chemical properties

6. In Agroforestry system, organic matter addition affords essential elements as well as

improve soil matrix (physical properties)

Choose the correct letter for each question

1. Which one is not beneficial effect of trees on soil?

A) Releasing of exudates B) fixing inorganic elements
C) Nutrient pumping D) all E) none
2. All are the process of nutrient cycling in Agroforestry, except

A) Weathering of minerals B) Update of nutrients by root

C) Litter decomposition D) Evaporating of nutrients

E) Precipitation of nutrients F) nutrient leaching

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CHAPTER SEVEN

SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS OF AGROFORESTRY

At the end of this chapter the student should able to

Discuss some important economic concepts relevant to agroforestry and an

examination of the most common procedures currently used for the economic
evaluation of agroforestry interventions

Evaluate profitability of Agroforestry investment

Overcome the societal and cultural factors which affect Agroforestry adoption as
well as implementation

Understand alternative financial analysis approaches in Agroforestry venture

When farmers incorporate woody perennials (Fruits or Forestry trees) in farm lands,
what understanding are there from economic, social, and cultural point of views?

Can Agroforestry improve the farming household livelihood?

How can Agroforestry bring change to the social interaction?

Introduction
Economic considerations are among the most important factors that will determine the
ultimate value and feasibility of agroforestry to the land user. Inadequate attention has
been paid to the economic value of directly quantifiable agroforestry outputs such as
fodder, green manure, fuelwood, and timber as well as significant, harder-to-quantify
environmental effects including enhanced soil fertility and watershed protection.

64
Furthermore, while traditional agroforestry systems may have proven economically
viable under the conditions in which they originally evolved, increasing land pressure,
changing social perceptions, and modern landuse options all underscore the need for new
economic evaluations of many existing systems.

7.1. Financial and Economic Analysis

At the end of this section the student should able to

Discuss the similarity and difference between financial and economic analysis

The economic analysis of projects is similar in form to financial analysis: both appraise
the profit of an investment. The concept of financial profit is not the same as economic
profit. The financial analysis of a project estimates the profit accruing to the project-
operating entity or to the project participants, whereas economic analysis measures the
effect of the project on the national economy. For a project to be economically viable, it
must be financially sustainable, as well as economically efficient. If a project is not
financially sustainable, economic benefits will not be realized. Financial analysis and
economic analysis are therefore two sides of the same coin and complementary.

Both types of analysis are conducted in monetary terms, the major difference lying in the
definition of costs and benefits. In financial analysis all expenditures incurred under the
project and revenues resulting from it are taken into account. This form of analysis is
necessary to

 assess the degree to which a project will generate revenues sufficient to meet its
financial obligations,

 assess the incentives for producers, and

 Ensure demand or output forecasts on which the economic analysis is based are
consistent with financial charges or available budget resources.

65
Economic analysis attempts to assess the overall impact of a project on improving the
economic welfare of the citizens of the country concerned. It assesses a project in the
context of the national economy, rather than for the project participants or the project
entity that implements the project. Economic analysis differs from financial analysis in
terms of both (i) the breadth of the identification and evaluation of inputs and outputs,
and (ii) the measure of benefits and costs. Economic analysis includes all members of
society, and measures the project's positive and negative impacts in terms of willingness
to pay for units of increased consumption, and to accept compensation for foregone units
of consumption. Willingness to pay and willingness to accept compensation are used
rather than prices actually paid or received because

1. Many of the project impacts that are to be included in the economic analysis either will
be non-marketed, for example, biodiversity preservation, or incompletely marketed, such
as, water supply and sanitation benefits. Thus, some form of nonmarket value must be
estimated.

2. Many project impacts that are marketed will be bought and sold in markets where
prices are distorted by various government interventions, by macroeconomic policies, or
by imperfect competition.

Shadow prices may be used in estimating the willingness to pay and willingness to accept
compensation values in the face of these market absences and market imperfections. The
benefits from a project constitute the extent to which the project contributes to increasing
the value of the consumption available to society. Consumption can be defined broadly.
Societal consumption may apply equally well to a society's willingness to pay for
preservation of plant or animal species, as to society's willingness to pay for the
consumption of agricultural produce or clean drinking water.

Costs reflect the degree to which consumption elsewhere in society is sacrificed by

diverting the resources required by the project from other uses. The total net changes in

66
consumption available to the society represent the net impact of the project. When the
units of consumption are valued in terms of marginal willingness to pay for the units of
increased consumption and marginal willingness to accept compensation for foregone
units of consumption, the resulting economic net benefits from the project will reflect the
summation of the changes in the net income of the society as a whole, resulting from the
situation with the project compared with that without the project.

Shadow prices are used to take into account the major impacts of a project where
economic values differ from financial values. In many developing member countries,
many prices paid and received in the project accounts may come from relatively complete
markets where the major impacts are captured in the transaction between buyer and
seller, and are reflected by the prices paid and received. As structural adjustment and
sectoral adjustment measures proceed, and as projects involving institutional and
organizational approaches to market development are successfully implemented, the
differences between financial values and economic values may lessen. The overall
objective of the structural and sectoral adjustment programs, and of the projects financed
by the Bank, is to attempt to create just such an economic environment in the Bank's
developing member countries.

7.2. Economic Aspect of Agroforestry

At the end of this section the student should able to

Evaluate economic efficiency of agroforestry comparably with other landuse

Define agroforestry production possibility curve

Overcome the cost or constraints of agroforestry practices through improving

component combinations by selecting appropriate species based on species profile

Understand and identity agroforestry features which contribute to economy

Most of the natural and human made resources are necessary to sustain economic
development in developing countries as it become increasingly scarce. Therefore, the
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decision to invest in one undertaking usually mandates the exclusion of its possible
alternatives. Economic considerations are among the most important factors that will
determine the ultimate value and feasibility of Agroforestry to the land user. Accordingly,
economics endeavors to determine the ways in which limited or scarce resources can best
be allocated to fulfill the competing wants and needs of a society. More specifically,
economic analysis attempts to demonstrate to decision-makers the possible repercussions
or trade-offs which will result from alternative courses of action. Such economic
examinations can decrease the likelihood of non optimal choices by offering a common
monetary standard of measurement between alternatives which, ideally, reflects true
resource scarcity and value.

Economic analysis of Agroforestry takes in accounts its complementary and long-term

characteristics, the essence of which can be illustrated through the utilization of
production possibilities curve (fig.7.1). Therefore, from economic point of view,
implementation of Agroforestry will provide greater productivity, and farm income as
compared to more traditional land-use agricultural activities.

Fig.7.1. Short term Agroforestry production possibilities curve

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Given both biophysical and human constraints, production combinations that lie above
the curve are unattainable while those that lie below the curve utilize available farm
resources in a relatively inefficient manner; the most efficient combinations are therefore
those on the curve itself. The negative slope of the curve depicts the notion of opportunity
cost: once relative efficiency has been reached, in the short-term at least, the farmer can
increase annual or perennial crop production only by producing less of the other. For
instance, if the farmer is presently producing two units of perennials and two annual units
and wishes to increase the production of the annual to three units, he or she must reduce
perennial production to one unit.

In reality, the perennial elements in an Agroforestry system will require time to bear fruit,
fodder, and fuelwood or to provide intended services such as soil erosion control or
fertility enhancement. Many different perennial-annual production combinations are
physically possible in an Agroforestry system. Determining the economic feasibility of a
specific combination will require information about the social valuation of relevant farm
inputs and outputs. The challenge to Agroforestry economic analysis is determining how
changing market realities can be integrated with physical production possibilities so as to
result in not only sustainable production, but also optimal farmer income and wellbeing.

7.2.1. Some basic features of AF and their implications to economic analysis

1. Multiple outputs- An AF system is normally composed of diverse annual and perennial

crops, requiring different inputs/management, having different outputs/functions, and
interactive effects.
Marketable products that directly contributing to household economy: - fiber, fodder,
food, fuel wood, medicine, gum & incense, timber, and bee forage

69
Non-market goods influencing ecosystem services:-nutrient recycling and enhancing land
fertility, improving water yield and quality, shade and wind break, soil conservation,
carbon storage, and biodiversity conservation.

2. Multiple economic roles. A given AF system component may have different roles in
the system and can thus be valued from different perspectives. E.g., a windbreak for
crop fields can be handled as an input (for crop production), a product (for fuelwood
harvests), or an investment (for long-term timber harvest).

3. Intertemporal variability. AF systems are perennial and changes over time have
important economic effects. The different system components have different life cycles
that may involve series of annual or periodic cost and revenue flows.

4. Long-term nature of some perennial crops. Tangible returns from some perennial crops
(trees) often take years signifying the importance of risk and time value of money.

5. Spatial factors. Spatial arrangements of trees and crops in intercropping affect both
management and output.

7.2.2. Approaches to financial analysis in Agroforestry

At the end of this section the student should able to

Select appropriate financial analysis of agroforestry

Discuss when agroforestry investment is possible to continue or forced to stop

Benefit-Cost analysis. Evaluates the worthiness of an investment in terms of the flows of

costs and benefits as well as the risks anticipated over an appropriate lifetime of an AF
technology. To analysis agroforestry investment; it is possible to use net present value
(NPV), benefit-cost ratio (BCR), and internal rate of return (IRR) techniques. Present
value explicitly incorporates the time value of money. A dollar today invested at 10%

70
interest yields will be $1.10 a year from now (the return of the $1 principal plus $0.10
interest). The present value of $1.10 received one year from now by investing it at 10%.

Earn in two years will be

$1(1+r) (1+r) = $1(1+r)2; it follows then that the present value of X received two years
from now is X/ (1+r) 2. The present value of one-time net benefit received n years from
now is

PV [Bn] = Bn
(1+r)n

The PV of a stream of net benefits (Bo-----Bn) received over a period of n years is

computed as
PV [Bo-----Bn] = ∑ Bi
(1+r)i

i.e., r- the appropriate interest rate, Bo is the amount benefit received immediately. The
process of calculating PV is called discounting. The rate r is referred to as the discount
rate.

(i) NPV: is the present value of expected future returns minus the present value of
expected future costs discounted by an appropriate discount rate. Accept an investment if
the NPV ≥ 0. When comparing alternatively, choose the one with the highest NPV.

where: B- the benefits in year t, C- the costs in year t, t- is the number of years over
which each revenue or cost is to be discounted, and r- is the selected discount rate.

(ii) BCR: is the present value (PV) of the expected benefits divided by the present value
of the expected costs. All the significant effects of a proposed project are first identified
and quantified. These effects are subsequently categorized as either benefits or costs,

71
valued by year, and then discounted at the preselected rate. The total discounted project
benefits are finally summed and divided by the sum of the discounted costs.

BCR= total discounted benefits

Total discounted costs

An investment that has a BCR of 1 has NPV equal to 0. If the BCR > 1, NPV > 0;
therefore, accept an investment if the BCR ≥ 1 and when comparing alternatives, choose
the one with the highest BCR.

For example, a project with total discounted benefits of $30 million and $20 million in
discounted costs would have a BC ratio of 1.5. If the ratio is greater than one, the project
is estimated to provide a positive net return. Theoretically, greater the ratio of benefits to
costs, then more attractive to undertake.

(iii) IRR: theoretically, calculates the maximum rate of interest that a project can repay
on loans while still recovering all investment and operating costs. In other words, the IRR
determines the earning power of the money invested in a particular venture. In actual
calculation, it is that discount rate which will make the discounted total benefits and costs
of an enterprise equal. The decision is to accept an investment if its IRR ≥ the guiding
interest rate/the minimum acceptable rate of return (MARR)
IRR = Ԑ (B t - C t / (1 + p)' = 0,

Where: B - is the benefits accruing in year t, C- is the costs accruing in year t, and p is the
internal rate of return. Projects with an IRR that is in excess of the opportunity cost of
capital are technically viable: at an interest rate of 8%, an undertaking which earned a
10% IRR would be acceptable while another with a 5% IRR would not be. The general
rule for selecting among alternative projects is to select those with the highest IRR.

7.3. Important socio-cultural factors in Agroforestry

At the end of this section the student should able to

72
 Discuss the major social and cultural factors those directly or indirectly affect the
agroforestry development and technology dissemination

Compare the extent of factors affecting agroforestry development

7.3.1. Land tenure

What is tenure system?

How ownership right can affects agroforestry technology adoption?

Land tenure system is the right of ownership to have a land to perform different activities
on it. It may be for a short time or more. Accordingly, for AF activities, it should be on
secured held since the practice takes more years to be ended, and, conversely, for
growing short-term crops on less securely held parcels. Closely related to the issue of
land tenure is that of tree tenure: rights to trees are often distinct from rights to land.
Issues associated with tree tenure include the right to own or inherit trees, the right to
plant trees, the right to use trees and tree products as well as the right to exclude others
from such uses, and the right to dispose of tree products. Furthermore, these various
rights differ widely across cultural zones and invariably have a major influence on the
social acceptability of any new Agroforestry initiative.

7.3.2. Labor

When do you think agroforestry investment will be more feared for labor
availability?

Labor requirements are scrutinized (analyzed) by rural people before they decide whether
or not to adopt a new Agroforestry practice. Farm families have traditionally developed
labor strategies to use inputs of various family members at various times of the year for
different tasks. Additional labor for persons already fully occupied at peak labor seasons
is considered more costly than when additional demands come during a slack season.

73
7.3.3. Marketability of product

Can affinity to market or road affects landuse efficiency?

Direct and immediate income that can be derived from a land-use system will be an
important criterion in the appraisal of its social acceptability. The processing and sale of
agricultural commodities are an essential source of off-farm income for many farming
societies.

Access to markets and raw materials, and to organizational and management skills, are
among the major constraints to the growth of resource poor and landless enterprises. The
selection of an appropriate market infrastructure can increase the availability of essential
raw materials. Products from trees on farms are considered as free goods in many
farming societies. Creating marketing opportunities for these free goods and thus
increasing the demand for these products, will also require making appropriate provisions
for meeting the local need of such locally-produced and freely available items.

7.3.4. Other social factors

What are social factors?

Social acceptability of Agroforestry is very closely linked to the economic feasibility of

the system. It is argued that although prospects were high for the integration of tree
planting into the traditional farming system, social acceptability relied very heavily on
cost-sharing devices between the government and rural farmers. Furthermore, the
availability of a viable extension service and the potential of some direct economic output
from the trees in the system were required for acceptance of Agroforestry. Willingness to
plant trees under these three conditions:

 securing tree seedlings at no cost;

 the possibility of interplanting trees with food crops without adverse effects on
crop yields; and

74
  the possibility of earning some income from the trees

A large number of other factors can be identified as extremely important in the social
context of Agroforestry introduction and development. Local use and knowledge, local
organization and participation in tree management, off-farm and on-farm income, food
security and human nutrition, and gender and age of farmers are some such issues that are
commonly believed as critical. Additionally, there are two other social factors that are
extremely important in Agroforestry development, but which are often inadequately
and/or improperly considered. These are the experts' views on farmers' perceptions of tree
planting (the beliefs, habits, and values of rural people), and governmental policies in
relation to Agroforestry implementation. The technical experts (foresters, agronomists,
etc.) are trained in their technical fields, but have limited knowledge of the people whom
they are supposed to serve. In most societies, three types of endeavors (activities) can be
identified as components of policy changes and policy formulation:

 Understanding the existing situation, and the problems and opportunities

associated with it.
 Identifying the changes that are desirable.
 Defining the policy instruments and other mechanisms that can be used to achieve
the objectives.

Self checking questions

I. Say either true or false for each question

1. Comparatevily, from economic point of view, traditional landuse is more productive
than improved Agroforestry technologies

75
2. Interms of economic effeciency, the most efficient production combination
possibilities are found above the production possibilties curve
3. If Agroforestry project is assessed by calculating IRR, if the value of interest rate is
greater than IRR, the project is efficient full
4. Compatibility of tree with agricultural practices is benefit of Agroforestry
5. An agroforestry investment which has BCR of less than one or equal to one is
supposed to be accepted

II. Match which is more appropriate or closer to each other

A B

1. expected future returns minus A. benefit

the expectedfuture costs B. BCR
2. Expected benefit divided by C. multiple output
the expected costs D. NPV
3. Interest rate of benefits equal to E. costs
interest rate of cost F. IRR
4. High value of output
5. High labor requirement

CHAPTER EIGHT

DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN (D&D) IN AGROFORESTRY

At the end of this chapter the student should able to

Identify landuse problems in the society

Prioritize landuse problems according to its’ severity level and designing

agroforestry technologies to overcome the problem

Introduction

76
D&D is a methodology for the diagnosis of land management problems and design of
Agroforestry solutions. It was developed by ICRAF to assist Agroforestry researchers
and development fieldworkers to plan and implement effective research and development
projects.

To the forester, or the farmer, the ability to solve a problem begins with the ability to
define what the problem is. A clear statement of the problem is often all that is needed to
suggest a solution. D&D is simply a systematic approach to application of this principle
in Agroforestry.

When farmers incorporate woody perennials (Fruits or Forestry trees) in farm

lands, what understanding are there from economic, social, and cultural point of
view?

Would be possible treating individuals without diagnosis?

At the time of introducing recommended technology, do you think that

implementation is good step without prioritizing the problems of landuse in the
area based on the current status?

The Key Features of the D&D Approach

Flexibility - D&D is a flexible discovery procedure which can be adapted to fit the needs
and resources of different users.

Speed - D&D has been designed with the option of a ''rapid appraisal'' application at the
planning stage of a project with in-depth follow-up during project implementation.

Repetition - D&D is an open-ended learning process. Since initial designs can almost
always be improved, the D&D process needn't end until further improvements are no
longer necessary.

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Users of Agroforestry Diagnosis &Design

This logic is so fundamental to human problem solving as to be almost “common sense''

the systematic elaboration and adaptation of this basic logic to Agroforestry which is
presented in this manual has been developed with three main users in mind.

RESEARCHERS as a discovery procedure for identifying the Agroforestry-related

needs and potentials of existing land use systems, D&D assists in the identification of
priorities for development-oriented research. Toward this end, the methodology provides
a logical, stepwise procedure for collaboration between specialists with different
disciplinary backgrounds and approaches to problem solving.

EXTENSION AGENTS It is increasingly recognized that extension workers must also

be involved in the research process if research is to develop technology that can be
extended readily to farmers. As the stock of proven Agroforestry technology increases,
extensions can make direct use of D&D to identify Agroforestry solutions to local
problems.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Field WORKERS Government field workers, non-

government organizations and other community-based development catalysts perform an
important function in helping local people to play a more active role in their own
development. D&D has applications in grass roots development work, not only as a tool
for self-help development, but also as a basic for communicating local needs and
innovations to formal research and extension institutions.

Flow Chart of Repetitive Activities and Feedback in Agroforestry D&D Based PROJECT

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 PREDIAGNOSTIC DESCRIPTION

DIAGNOSIS

TECHNOLOGY DESIGN

AND EVALUATION

ON SITE PLANNING ON-STATION

RESEARCH RESEARCH
DECISIONS

DISSEMINATION

Key concepts

D&D IS SYSTEM SPECIFIC

At the end of this section the student should able to

Mention the important steps in Diagnosis and design in agroforestry technologies

List alternative solution to the specific problem

Implement the appropriate technology and enough consider the feed back

The focus of D&D is land use system. Since different systems are likely to have different
problems and potentials, it follows that each distinctive land use system must have its
own diagnosis and corresponding design.

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This does not mean that D&D results are ''site specific'' since the same basic land use
system may exist in many sites. The selection of sites representative of important land
use systems is an essential aspect of the art of D&D.

Definition of the system for D&D purposes

For the purposes of a D&D exercise, a land use system is defined as a distinctive
combination of three interrelated factors: the land resources exploited by a particular
technology to satisfy the production objective of a particular type of land user.

This definition contrasts with other commonly used definitions which do not formally
recognize the land user as part of the system. The difference is more than just semantic,
since all three elements are essential to a functioning land use system. If the human
element is left out of the picture it becomes too easy to overlook the objectives around
which the existing land use system is organized. By consciously attempting to design
with the grain of the existing system rather than against it, the D&D methodology helps
to avoid the kind of design error that results in technically and environmentally feasible
but somehow ''non-adoptable'' Agroforestry technologies.

The Diagnosis Leads to Specifications for Interventions

The end-product of the diagnostic procedure is a set of functional specifications which

tell what the system needs and, in a general way, how these needs can best be satisfied.

Specifications Suggest 'Candidate Technologies'

This is basically a matching exercise which narrows down the range of technical choices
to those prototype technologies which are hypothetically of meeting the specifications.

TECHNOLOGY SPECIFICATIONS

80
The design is not complete until the 'nuts and bolts' of the selected technologies have
been specified, i.e. the actual choice of component species, spatial arrangements,
management practices, etc.

The Design Reveals Research Needs and Extension Opportunities

The attempt to arrive at an Agroforestry design relevant to the needs of the diagnosed
system is a practical way of exposing the gaps in technical knowledge. Research and
extension programmes designed to develop and implement the envisaged technical
solution are likely to be more relevant and cost-effective.

If at First You Don't Succeed, Try Again

Complete success on the first round of D&D is an unrealistic expectation. There is a

saying in the engineering profession that '' the first one never works.'' There are
exceptions to this facetious generalization, of course, but it is true that prototype
technologies can always be improved. The aim of the initial round of D&D is not to
arrive at the perfect solution, but simply to start the research and development process
moving in the right direction and to provide a concrete focus for further design
improvements.

The very act of introducing a new technology changes the diagnosed situation and
necessitates at least one more round of diagnosis to evaluate the impact of the
intervention on the system. In most cases this will suggest ideas for design
improvements. Longer exposure results in a deepening of the initial diagnosis and may
even suggest a whole new approach to design. Creative inputs from farmers may not be
forthcoming until after they have been exposed to the experimental technology for some
time.

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 Table 8.1 Important steps for diagnosis and design in Agroforestry technology

[Link] Step1. planning the study Identify objectives

IC STAGE Specify area to be covered
Identify collaborating institutions and
staff
Select and adapt D&D methods to be used
Step2. regional reconnaissance Identify, map and describe major land
units and population distribution
Step 3. identification and Differentiate and describe important land
preliminary description of land use systems
use system Make a preliminary assessment of their
constraints & problems
Make a preliminary assessment of their
Agroforestry potential
Step4. site selection Select land use systems for priority
attention based on:
i) severity of problems
ii) Agroforestry potential
iii) regional representativeness
Select sites representative of the chosen
systems for in-depth D&D
II. DIAGNOSTIC Step 5. diagnostic survey Conduct field survey of representative
STAGE management units to identify common
land use strategies and problems
Troubleshoot the production systems to
identify causal factors and contraints
Investigate interactions between and
within management units and processes in
the general landscape

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 Step 6. diagnostic analysis Analyze field data to identify key
constraints and intervention points for
development of system potential
Assess sustainability problems
Step 7. specifications for List system specification:
appropriate interventions Functional specifications for
interventions
Design constraints
Desirable attributes of new
technology
Overall development strategy for the
system
III. TECHNOLO Step 8. identification of List feasible technologies which meet the
GY DESIGN candidate technologies system specifications
STAGE
Select and prioritize the most promising
technologies and combinations
Step 9. detailed technology Make a detailed list of desirable attributes
specifications of each of the selected technologies
(component characteristics, mgt.
considerations, etc.)

Prioritize the attributes on this list in the

light of the total knowledge of the
diagnosed system
Step 10. setting specific For each specific technology, give
questions on detailed detailed answers to each of the following
technology specification questions
What functions should each intervention
address?
At what location within the farm or

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 general landscape should these functions
be performed?
What component or combination of
components (plant/animal species &
varieties) are the best choices for
performing these functions?

How many of each component is required

to meet production targets?

What precise arrangement of components

is envisaged? (give details of spatial and
temporal associations of components at a
given location)

What management practices are required

to achieve the desired performance
characteristics?
- Take note of all design questions to
which the D&D team is presently unable
to give satisfactory answers (these are
topics for further consultation research)
- Synthesize all of the above into an
integrated design for an Agroforestry
system which best answers the needs and
potentials of the existing land use system
(consider stepwise introduction of
component technologies if the full
system is likely to be too much for local
farmers to adopt all at once)
IV. EVALUATI Step 11. ex-ante evaluation & - Check land users' response to the
ON AND redesign design proposal (optional D&D
REDESIGN verification survey)
STAGE - Conduct a preliminary evaluation of
the Agroforestry design, compare with
present land use and non-Agroforestry
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 alternatives in terms of:
a. Productivity (biological potential,
economic efficiency & diversity of
production)
b. Sustainability (environ. impact,
resource conservation)
c. Adoptability (fulfillment of felt needs,
cultural compatibility, social distribution
of benefits)
- Return to design stage actives to
make modifications suggested by the
preliminary evaluation

Step 12. Suitability Summarize system evaluations for each of

classification the designed Agroforestry systems and
develop classification of suitability for
wider application
- Combine these classifications into
suitability maps and tables for the study
area/region as a whole (define preliminary
'' recommendation domain'')
Note: - Results of ex-ante evaluation and
preliminary suitability
classificationshould be considered
provisional until validated by field
experience at the implementation stage.
Strictly speaking, favorable evaluation at
the present stage merely indicates that a
particular technology is worth developing
and testing.

85
Reference

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