Memory: introduction
Learning & Cognition
Could we erase a memory?
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Learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
● Define the term 'memory' from a cognitive psychology perspective.
● Outline and evaluate research methods used to study the biological and cognitive
aspects of memory.
● Distinguish between Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) and Long-Term Memory
(LTM).
● Describe the different types of Long-Term Memory (semantic, episodic, procedural,
and perceptual) and their respective functions.
● Explain how research into brain damage patients supports the idea of memory
localization.
What is memory?
● Definition: memory is the cognitive process by which information is actively
encoded (transformed into a usable mental construct), stored (retained over
time), and subsequently retrieved (accessed for use).
● Early concept & search:
○ Historically, memory was often conceptualized as a single "place" in the
brain.
○ Early researchers searched for the "engram"—the hypothetical physical
trace or location of a specific memory.
Methods for studying memory
Memory is difficult to define and locate, requiring diverse research methods.
● Methods of investigation:
○ Post-mortem studies (examining brain structure after death)
○ Case studies of people with brain damage (e.g., HM)
○ Animal research (studying memory in non-human subjects)
○ Controlled memory tests (e.g., recall and recognition experiments)
○ Interviews about autobiographical memories (qualitative data)
○ Brain imaging technology (fMRI, PET scans)
Evidence for memory localization
● Key finding: research on brain-damaged patients strongly supports the
theory that different types of memory are stored in different parts of the
brain.
● Brain imaging: technology allows us to observe which brain areas (e.g.,
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) are active during different memory tasks.
The basic division of memory (duration)
1. Short-Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory (WM)
● Definition: the ability to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state.
● Duration: very brief; typically a few seconds to a minute.
● Capacity: limited capacity (often cited as 7 ± 2 items).
● Function: essential for immediate, everyday tasks (e.g., simple calculation, dialing a number).
● Note: without repetition or rehearsal, the information quickly decays.
2. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
● Definition: stores information for extended durations, from hours up to a lifetime.
● Duration: relatively permanent; potentially indefinite with reinforcement.
● Capacity: vast, potentially unlimited.
● Function: holds facts, experiences, and skills that form our knowledge base.
Long-term types of memory (explicit/declarative)
Researchers suggest LTM is comprised of multiple, distinct systems.
1. Semantic Memory
○ What it is: factual and general knowledge about the world.
○ Examples: knowing that Paris is the capital of France, the definition of a cognitive
process, or multiplication tables.
2. Episodic Memory (Autobiographical Memory)
○ What it is: memories of specific events or experiences that occurred at a particular
time and place.
○ Examples: memories of your high school graduation day, your first kiss, or a recent
family event.
Long-term types of memory (implicit/non-declarative)
3. Procedural Memory
○ What it is: memories of how to perform specific tasks or skills.
○ Examples: knowing how to ride a bicycle, tie your shoes, or play a musical instrument.
○ Also includes: habits that we have built over time.
4. Perceptual Memory
○ What it is: the ability to recognize and remember sensory patterns.
○ Function: it allows us to identify objects, sounds, and textures based on prior
experience.
○ Key Role: plays a critical part in facial recognition and recognizing melodies.
Our earliest memories
● Earliest memories are between the ages of 3 - 5.
● Many memories are "incomplete."
● Memories are not fixed in time.
● Memories are often of ourselves and not other people.
● Memories are often emotional
● Many early memories are tied to smells, tastes, or specific sounds rather than detailed
verbal descriptions
● Early recollections tend to be brief and lack complexity, often focusing on a single moment
rather than a sequence of events.
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Memory
and the
brain
Memory and the brain
● The hippocampus is essential for encoding and consolidating autobiographical memories. It helps
bind different elements of an experience (e.g., sights, sounds, emotions) into a cohesive memory.
● The prefrontal cortex helps integrate autobiographical memories with emotions and
self-relevance. Damage here can lead to distorted memories or difficulty recalling life events in a
coherent way.
● The precuneus (part of the parietal lobe) helps us mentally relive past experiences. This region is
active when people vividly recall personal memories.
● The amygdala enhances emotionally charged memories, making them more vivid and long-lasting.
● This distribution of memory across multiple brain regions ensures long-term retention, even if one
area is damaged.
The hippocampus and declarative memory
The hippocampus: a key structure in the limbic system, essential for learning and memory.
● Role in memory formation: it is essential for the formation of declarative memories
(semantic and episodic) by transferring short-term memories into long-term storage.
● Spatial memory & neuroplasticity (Maguire et al., 2000):
○ The hippocampus helps process spatial relationships (e.g., navigation).
○ London taxi drivers, who memorize 25,000+ streets, had significantly larger posterior
hippocampi compared to controls.
○ This demonstrates neuroplasticity—the brain's ability to change in response to
experience.
● Amnesia and the case of H.M.:
○ Damage to the hippocampus often results in anterograde amnesia (inability to form
new memories).
○ H.M. (Scoville and Milner, 1957) lost the ability to form new long-term memories after
the hippocampus was removed to treat seizures.
Procedural and emotional memory localization
Amnesia evidence (H.M.):
● H.M. retained his procedural memory (e.g., improved at tracing a star shape) despite his amnesia.
● This shows the hippocampus is not responsible for procedural memory.
Procedural memory (Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia):
● Cerebellum: important for motor control, coordination, and learning motor skills/habits.
● Basal Ganglia: a network of structures supporting procedural memory. Damage (e.g., in Parkinson's
disease) impairs procedural tasks.
● Procedural memory is implicit (operates without conscious awareness)
Emotional memory (Amygdala):
● The amygdala is involved in the formation, storage, and retrieval of emotional memories.
● It works with stress hormones (epinephrine, cortisol) to enhance the consolidation of highly
arousing events, ensuring vivid, long-term memory for critical information (useful for survival).
Evaluating the biological approach
Biological approach: emphasises the role of biological processes (e.g., neural processes, synaptic
plasticity, structural changes) in influencing memory and learning.
The problem of reductionism: simplifying complex cognitive processes like memory to purely biological
factors is considered reductionist.
Holistic alternative: a holistic approach, using several psychological perspectives, is necessary to fully
understand memory.
Limitations of the Reductionist Approach:
● Oversimplification of cognition to basic biological processes.
● Often fails to address the 'why' cognitive processes occur, focusing mainly on the 'how'.
● The interaction between multiple variables (environment, social context, cognitive strategies) is
often overlooked.
● May lead to deterministic views, ignoring human free will and agency over cognition.
● Limited real-world applications when purely biological.