THERMODYNAMICS-SECOND LAW 2025

UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE-KICHWAMBA

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2025
SUB MODULE SIX: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
We have already discussed in Chapter 4 (Art. 4.4), the limitations of First law of
thermodynamics. According to the first statement of the first law, a closed system undergoing a
thermodynamic cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work done. But this does not specify
the direction in which the heat and work flows. It also does not give any condition under which
these transfers take place.
According to the second statement of the first law, the heat energy and mechanical work are
mutually convertible. Though the mechanical energy can be fully converted into heat energy, but
only a part of heat energy is converted into mechanical work.
The second law of thermodynamics put the restriction that the processes precede in a certain
direction and not in the opposite direction. According to the second law, the whole of heat energy
cannot be converted into work and part of the energy, therefore, must be rejected to the
surroundings. In other words, the energy is degraded in the process of producing mechanical
energy from the heat supplied. Thus, the second law of thermodynamics provides the means for
measuring the energy degradation, so it is also known as law of degradation of energy.
6.2 STATEMENTS OF SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Following are the two common statements of the second law of thermodynamics:
1. Kelvin-Planck statement. The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics is as follows:
“It is impossible to construct an engine which, while working in a cycle, produces no
effect other than to extract heat from a single thermal reservoir and perform an equivalent
work.”
This statement relates to a heat engine and it means that the complete conversion of heat
energy into work is impossible. In other words, the *efficiency of a heat engine cannot be
100 percent.
* The efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output (work done) to the input
(heat supplied).
2. Clausius Statement. The Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics is as
follows:
“It is impossible to construct an engine which, while working in a cycle, produces no
effect other than to transfer heat from a low temperature reservoir to a high temperature
reservoir without the aid of an external agency.”

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This statement relates to a heat pump or refrigerator and it means that external work is required
to pump heat from a low temperature reservoir to a high temperature reservoir. Alternately, it
may be stated that the coefficient of performance of a heat pump or a refrigerator is finite.
Though the above two statements appear to be different, yet they are equivalent. It may
be proved that violation of either statement leads to violation of the other.
6.3 PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF SECOND KIND (PMM-II)
A heat engine which violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics (a heat engine which converts whole of the heat energy into mechanical work)
is called a perpetual motion machine of the second kind (PMM-II).
It is impossible to construct such a machine (i.e. 100 percent efficient machine) because, in
actual practice, no machine can convert whole of the heat energy supplied to it, into its equivalent
amount of work.
6.4 IMPORTANT TERMS
The following are the important terms widely used in connection with second law of
thermodynamics:
1. Thermal or heat reservoir. The thermal or heat reservoir is a system or body of extremely
large heat capacity, capable of absorbing or rejecting finite amount of heat without any change
in temperature. For example, atmosphere, rivers, seas are reservoirs from which we can extract or
dump any amount of heat without changing its temperature.
2. Heat source. The heat source (or simply known as source) is a reservoir at a higher
temperature from which heat is extracted without change of its temperature. The examples of a
heat source are sun, boiler furnaces, combustion chamber, nuclear reactor etc.
3. Heat sink. The heat sink (or simply known as sink) is a reservoir at a low temperature. It
is capable of absorbing any amount of heat without change in its temperature. The examples of a
heat sink are atmosphere or surroundings.
4. Heat engine. A heat engine is a thermodynamic system used for converting heat into work,
while operating in a cycle between the high temperature source and a low temperature sink. The
principle of a heat engine is shown in Fig. 6.3. Let the heat energy (Q1) is supplied to the system
(heat engine) from the heat source at temperature T1. Some of the heat energy (Q2) is rejected to
the sink and the remaining heat (Q1 – Q2) is converted into workdone by the system.
The performance of a heat engine is measured by the efficiency which may be defined as
the ratio of the net workdone by the system (or output of the engine) to the total heat supplied.
Mathematically, efficiency of a heat engine,

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5. Heat pump. A heat pump is a thermodynamic system used for extracting heat from a low
temperature body and delivers it to a high temperature body. The principle of a heat pump is shown
in Fig. 6.4. Let the heat energy Q2 from the atmosphere or surrounding at a low temperature T2
and supply heat Q1 to a body at a higher temperature T1 by using external energy in the form of
work input (WP).
The performance of a heat pump is measured by the coefficient of performance (briefly written
as C.O.P.) which is defined as the ratio of heat supplied to the external work supplied (work input)
to obtain the desired effect. Thus, coefficient of performance [also known as energy performance
ratio (EPR)] is given by

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6.5 CARNOT CYCLE

The Carnot cycle consists of an alternate series of two reversible isothermal processes and
two reversible adiabatic processes, as shown on the p-v and T-s diagram in Fig. 6.6 (a) and (b)
respectively.
The Carnot engine has air as it working substance, enclosed in a cylinder in which a frictionless
piston moves. The walls of the cylinder and piston are insulated. The cylinder head can be covered
* The amount of heat extracted (Q2) is also termed as refrigerating effect produced or
capacity of a refrigerator. with an insulating cap. The engine works between the hot
body and cold body. It consists of the following four processes:
1. Process 1-2 (Isothermal expansion). The hot body is brought in contact with the head
of the cylinder. The air expands at constant temperature (isothermally) T1 = T2 from volume v1
to v2. The heat supplied to the air is utilised in doing the external work. The curve 1-2 on the p-v
diagram represents the isothermal expansion.
According to the first law of thermodynamics,

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Q1–2 = dU + W1–2
Since the temperature is constant, therefore there is no change in internal energy, i.e.
dU = 0, or Q1–2 = W1–2

2. Process 2–3 (Reversible adiabatic expansion or isentropic expansion). The hot body is
removed from the cylinder head and the insulating cover is put on. Thus no heat transfer takes
place (i.e. Q2–3 = 0). The air expands reversibly and adiabatically, from volume v2 to v3. The
temperature drops from T2 to T3. The curve 2–3 on the p-v diagram represents the reversible
adiabatic (or isentropic expansion).
According to the first law of thermodynamics,
Q2–3 = dU + W2–3 or – dU = W2–3
Q2–3 = 0)
The – ve sign indicates that there is a decrease in internal energy.

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3. Process 3–4 (Isothermal compression). The insulating cover is removed and the cold
body is brought in contact with the head of the cylinder. The air is compressed at constant
temperature (T3 = T4) from volume v3 to v4. The heat rejected by the air to the cold body is equal
to the workdone on the air. The curve 3–4 on the p-v diagram represents the isothermal
compression.
According to the first law of thermodynamics,
Q3–4 = dU – W3–4
The –ve sign indicates that during compression, work is done on the air.
Since the temperature is constant, therefore there is no change in internal energy, i.e.
dU = 0, or Q3–4 = – W3–4
We know that workdone on the air during isothermal compression process 3–4,

4. Process 4–1 (Reversible adiabatic compression or isentropic compression). The cold

body is removed from the cylinder head and the insulating cover is put on. Thus no heat transfer
takes place (i.e. Q4–1 = 0). The air compresses reversibly and adiabatically from volume v4 to
v1. The temperature increases from T4 to T1. The curve 4–1 on the p-v diagram represents the
reversible adiabatic compression or isentropic compression.
According to first law of thermodynamics,

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6.6 EFFICIENCY OF CARNOT CYCLE

The efficiency of the Carnot cycle is defined as the ratio of the workdone per cycle to the
heat supplied per cycle. Mathematically, efficiency,

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6.7 PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES (or IMPRACTICABILITY) OF CARNOT CYCLE

Though the Carnot cycle is the most efficient, yet it has some practical difficulties as
mentioned below:
1. All the four processes are not reversible due to internal friction between the piston and
cylinder.
2. During isothermal process, the piston must move very slow and during adiabatic process, it
should move very fast. This is practically not possible to have such variation of speed during the
same cycle.
3. The isothermal heat addition is not possible in actual practice because the temperature is
bound to increase.
4. It is impossible to transfer the heat without finite temperature difference.
It is thus obvious that in actual practice it is impossible to realise Carnot’s engine. But it is
used as a ultimate standard of comparison of all heat engines.

Work out the following

6.1. In a heat engine, the temperature of the source and sink are 700°C and 50°C respectively.
The heat supplied is 5 MJ/min. Find the power developed by the engine.
(55.67 kJ/s or kW Ans).
6.2. A refrigerating machine works on a reversed Carnot cycle. It consumes 6 kW and the
refrigerating effect is 1000 kJ/min. The sink temperature is – 40°C. Determine: 1. Source
temperature; and 2. C.O.P. of the refrigerating machine.
(43.8°C Ans, 2.78 Ans)

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6.3. An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerating machine which operates between –
20°C and 30°C and consumes 1 kW of power. The machine gives a refrigerating effect of
21.6 MJ/h. Comment on the claim of the inventor.
6.4. A reversible heat engine operates with two environments. In the first, it draws
12 000 kW from a source at 400°C and in the second, it draws 25 000 kW from a source at 100°C.
In both the operations, the engine rejects heat to a thermal sink at 20°C. Determine the operation in
which the engine delivers more power.
6.5. A reversible engine receives heat from a reservoir at 700°C and rejects heat at a temperature
T2 . A second reversible engine receives the heat rejected by the first engine and rejects to a sink
at a temperature of 37°C. Calculate the temperature T2 for
(a) equal efficiency of both the engines; and
(b) equal work output of both the engines.
(549.2 K Ans, 641.5 K Ans)
6.6. A house is to be maintained at 25°C in summer as well as winter. For this purpose, it is
proposed to use a reversible device as a refrigerator in summer and a heat pump in winter. The
ambient temperature is 40°C in summer and 3°C in winter. The energy losses as heat from the
roof and the walls are estimated at 5 kW per degree Celsius temperature difference between the
room and the ambient conditions. Calculate the power required to operate the device in summer
and winter.
(3.77 kW Ans, 8.12 kW Ans)
6.7. A reversible heat engine receives heat from two thermal reservoirs maintained at constant
temperatures of 750 K and 500 K. The engine develops 100 kW and rejects 3600 kJ / min of heat
to a heat sink at 250 K. Determine the heat supplied by each thermal reservoir and thermal
efficiency of the engine.
(117.65 kJ Ans, 42.4 kJ Ans, 0.625 or 62.5 % Ans).
6.8. A refrigerator working between 25°C and – 15°C is driven by an electric motor rated at 2
kW. What quantity of ice at 0°C can be obtained from water at 20°C in 10 hours. Take cp
for ice = 2.1 kJ/kg K and cp for water = 4.2 kJ/kg K.
(1108 kg Ans).
6.9. A heat engine operating between two reservoirs at 1000 K and 350 K is used to drive a heat
pump which extracts heat from the reservoir at 350 K, at a rate twice that at which the engine
rejects heat to it. If the efficiency of the engine is 40% of the maximum possible and the coefficient
of performance of the heat pump is 50% of the maximum possible, make calculations for the
temperature of the reservoir to which the heat pump rejects heat. Also work out the rate of heat
rejection from the heat pump, if the rate of supply of heat to the engine is 50 kW.
(87 kJ Ans, 499 K Ans),

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