MODELING AND TCAD SIMULATION

OF SOLAR PV CELL
BY
PROF. MUKUL KUMAR DAS
Dept. of Electronics Engineering
IIT – ISM DHANBAD

Teaching Assistant
Dr. Syed Sadique Anwer Askari Mr. Pranaw Kumar
Faculty, Manipal University SRF, IIT-ISM Dhanbad

Week 11: TCAD simulation: Demonstration

on simulation using SCAPS Contd..
Lecture 51: Effect of emitter and
absorber doping on the performance of
Thin Film Solar Cell
Last Lecture:
— Tutorial on simulation of thin film solar cell
using SCAPS 1D
— Parameter Extraction
— Effect of Different Parameters on the
Performance

In this lecture:
— Demonstration: Effect of emitter doping on the
performance of thin film solar cell
— Demonstration: Effect of Temperature on the
performance parameters
CdTe-based Thin film Solar cell

Metal (Back contact)

p-type CdTe (Absorber Layer)

n-type CdS (Window Layer)

SnOx (TCO)

Glass (Substrate)

CdTe absorbed based solar cell

CdTe-based Thin film Solar cell

Table II: Layer Material Properties

Parameters n-SnOx n-CdS p-CdTe
Thickness (nm) 500 25 4000
Band gap (eV) 3.6 2.4 1.5
Electron affinity (eV) 4.0 4.0 3.9
Dielectric permittivity 9.0 10 9.4
CB effective density of state (cm-3) 2.2 × 1018 2.2 × 1018 8 × 1017
VB effective density of state (cm-3) 1.8 × 1019 1.8 × 1019 1.8 × 1019
Electron thermal velocity (cms-1) 1 × 107 1 × 107 1 × 107 CdTe absorbed based solar cell
Hole thermal velocity (cms-1) 1 × 107 1 × 107 1 × 107
Electron mobility (cm2s-1) 100 100 320
Hole mobility (cm2s-1) 25 25 40
Donor density (cm-3) 1017 1017 0
Acceptor density (cm-3) 0 0 2 × 1014
Absorber (Base) Doping

• Carrier Collection & Depletion Width

 The depletion region extends mostly into the absorber.
 Lower absorber doping → wider depletion width → better collection of photogenerated carriers
(especially minority carriers with short diffusion length).
 Higher absorber doping → narrower depletion width → weaker collection efficiency; carriers
generated deeper in the bulk may recombine before reaching the junction.

• Recombination
 Heavy doping in the absorber increases defect density and Auger recombination.
 High doping increases Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination centers and reduces carrier lifetime.
 Result → reduced open-circuit voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐​ and short-circuit current 𝐽𝑠𝑐​.

• Built-in Potential & Voltage

 Moderate absorber doping helps in maintaining a high built-in
potential, 𝑉𝑏𝑖​, which drives carrier separation.
 Too low doping → insufficient built-in field, reducing 𝑉𝑜𝑐​.
 Too high doping → Auger recombination dominates, reducing both
𝑉𝑜𝑐​ and fill factor (FF).

Typically in the range of 1014−1016 cm−3

Emitter (Window layer) Doping

• Junction Quality
 High doping in the emitter reduces its resistivity, which lowers series resistance → improves fill
factor (FF).
 Strongly doped emitter ensures that the depletion region lies mostly in the absorber, not in the
emitter

• Carrier Recombination
 If the emitter is too heavily doped: Minority carrier lifetime decreases due to Auger and SRH recombination.
 Surface recombination velocity increases (since front interface defects become active recombination centers).
→ Reduces blue response of the solar cell (short-wavelength photons absorbed near the surface).

• Band Alignment & Tunneling

 In heterojunction thin-film cells (e.g., CdS/CdTe or ZnO/CIGS), emitter doping also
affects band bending and conduction band offset.
 Too much doping may create tunneling-assisted recombination at the interface.
 Proper emitter doping ensures good band alignment, lowering interface
recombination.

Typically in the range of 1017−1018 cm−3

To keep depletion mostly in the absorber, but not so high that it reduces carrier lifetime.
Overall Device Performance Impact
• Open-Circuit Voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑐​):
 Improves with moderate absorber doping (strong built-in field).
 Degrades with too high doping (recombination) or too low doping (weak junction field).

• Short-Circuit Current (𝐽𝑠𝑐​):

 Improves with low/moderate absorber doping (wider depletion width, better carrier collection).
 Reduced if emitter doping is too high (front-surface recombination).
• Fill Factor (FF):
 High emitter doping lowers resistive losses, improving FF.
 But very high doping (emitter or absorber) increases recombination, reducing FF.

• Efficiency:
 Requires optimized balance: moderately doped absorber + heavily doped emitter.
 Typical thin-film solar cells are designed so that:Absorber → thick,
lightly/moderately doped for absorption & collection.
 Emitter → thin, heavily doped for junction formation & low resistance.

Absorber doping -- Influences carrier collection and recombination → 𝑉𝑜𝑐

and 𝐽𝑠𝑐​ affected
Emitter doping -- Mainly controls junction quality and resistive losses → FF
and blue response afected
• M. Burgelman, P. Nollet and S. Degrave, “Modelling polycrystalline semiconductor solar cells”, Thin
Solid Films, 361-362, 527-532, 2000
• K. Decock, P. Zabierowski, M. Burgelman, “Modelling metastabilities in chalcopyrite-based thin film
solar cells”, Journal of Applied Physics, 111, 043703, 2012
• M. Burgelman, K. Decock, S. Khelifi and A. Abass, “Advanced electrical simulation of thin film solar
cells”, Thin Solid Films, 535, 296-301, 2013
• S. M. Sze and K. N. Kwok, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices,” 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2006
MODELING AND TCAD SIMULATION
OF SOLAR PV CELL
BY
PROF. MUKUL KUMAR DAS
Dept. of Electronics Engineering
IIT – ISM DHANBAD

Teaching Assistant
Dr. Syed Sadique Anwer Askari Mr. Pranaw Kumar
Faculty, Manipal University SRF, IIT-ISM Dhanbad

Week 11: TCAD simulation: Demonstration

on simulation using SCAPS Contd..
Lecture 52: Effect of interface defect on
the performance of Thin Film Solar Cell
Last Lecture:
— Demonstration: Effect of emitter doping on
the performance of thin film solar cell
— Demonstration: Effect of Temperature on
the performance parameters

In this lecture:
— Demonstration: Effect of interface defect on
the performance of thin film solar cell
CdTe-based Thin film Solar cell

Metal (Back contact)

p-type CdTe (Absorber Layer)

n-type CdS (Window Layer)

SnOx (TCO)

Glass (Substrate)

CdTe absorbed based solar cell

CdTe-based Thin film Solar cell

Table II: Layer Material Properties

Parameters n-SnOx n-CdS p-CdTe
Thickness (nm) 500 25 4000
Band gap (eV) 3.6 2.4 1.5
Electron affinity (eV) 4.0 4.0 3.9
Dielectric permittivity 9.0 10 9.4
CB effective density of state (cm-3) 2.2 × 1018 2.2 × 1018 8 × 1017
VB effective density of state (cm-3) 1.8 × 1019 1.8 × 1019 1.8 × 1019
Electron thermal velocity (cms-1) 1 × 107 1 × 107 1 × 107 CdTe absorbed based solar cell
Hole thermal velocity (cms-1) 1 × 107 1 × 107 1 × 107
Electron mobility (cm2s-1) 100 100 320
Hole mobility (cm2s-1) 25 25 40
Donor density (cm-3) 1017 1017 0
Acceptor density (cm-3) 0 0 2 × 1014
Interface Defects??
• Interface defects
 Also called interface states -- energy states located at:
 Emitter/absorber interface (heterojunction or homojunction boundary).
 Absorber/buffer interface (e.g., CdS/CdTe, ZnO/CIGS).Absorber/back contact interface (e.g.,
CdTe/Mo).
 Arise from:
 Lattice mismatch → dislocations.
 Incomplete bonds → dangling bonds.
 Chemical impurities or diffusion across layers.
 They introduce mid-gap states that can trap carriers and mediate recombination.
How affect the Device Performance ??
• Carrier Recombination at the Junction
 Interface defect states capture electrons and holes → enable Shockley-Read-Hall
(SRH) recombination right at the junction.
 This lowers the minority carrier lifetime and diffusion length.
 Direct result: Reduced short-circuit current density 𝐽𝑠𝑐​ (since fewer carriers are
collected).
 Lower open-circuit voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐​ (since recombination lowers the quasi-Fermi level
splitting).
Effect of Interface Defects

• Band Bending and Barrier Formation

 Charged interface states pin the Fermi level at the interface.
 This modifies the band bending at the heterojunction:Can create a “cliff” conduction band offset
(bad: promotes interface recombination).
 Or an unfavorable barrier for minority carriers, blocking their transport.
 Both effects reduce carrier collection and thus fill factor (FF).

• Increased Series Resistance

 High defect density can trap free carriers → reducing their mobility near the junction.
 In extreme cases, this creates a resistive interface layer (so-called “dead layer”), increasing series resistance
(Rs).
 This reduces FF and efficiency.

• Reduced Blue Response

 Photons with short wavelengths (blue/UV) are absorbed near the front interface.
 If interface defects are high, the generated carriers recombine before collection.
 Measured in EQE (external quantum efficiency) as reduced response at shorter
wavelengths.
Effect of Interface Defects

• Hysteresis and Instability

 Particularly in Perovskite solar cell, interface traps can capture/release ions and carriers
dynamically.
 This leads to hysteresis in I–V curves and long-term instability under light and bias stress.

• Possible Mitigation Strategies

 Passivation of interface defects
 CdCl₂ treatment in CdTe solar cells.
 Alkali (Na, K) treatments in CIGS.
 Interfacial layers (e.g., TiO₂, SnO₂, SAMs) in perovskites.
 Band alignment engineering
 Choose buffer/emitter materials with favorable conduction band offsets (“spike”
rather than “cliff”).
 Surface modification
 Reduce dangling bonds via chemical treatments (e.g., sulfide passivation).
Passivation
Passivation
Passivation
• M. Burgelman, P. Nollet and S. Degrave, “Modelling polycrystalline semiconductor solar cells”, Thin
Solid Films, 361-362, 527-532, 2000
• K. Decock, P. Zabierowski, M. Burgelman, “Modelling metastabilities in chalcopyrite-based thin film
solar cells”, Journal of Applied Physics, 111, 043703, 2012
• M. Burgelman, K. Decock, S. Khelifi and A. Abass, “Advanced electrical simulation of thin film solar
cells”, Thin Solid Films, 535, 296-301, 2013
• S. M. Sze and K. N. Kwok, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices,” 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2006
MODELING AND TCAD SIMULATION
OF SOLAR PV CELL
BY
PROF. MUKUL KUMAR DAS
Dept. of Electronics Engineering
IIT – ISM DHANBAD

Teaching Assistant
Dr. Syed Sadique Anwer Askari Mr. Pranaw Kumar
Faculty, Manipal University SRF, IIT-ISM Dhanbad

Week 11: TCAD simulation: Demonstration

on simulation using SCAPS Contd..
Lecture 53: Effect of back contact
material on the performance of Thin
Film Solar Cell
Last Lecture:
— Demonstration: Effect of interface defect
on the performance of thin film solar cell

In this lecture:
— Demonstration: Effect of contact material on
the performance of thin film solar cell
CdTe-based Thin film Solar cell

Table I: Contact Properties

Parameters Back Contact Front Contact

Barrier φb(eV) 0.4 0.1

Electron Surface recombination velocity (cm/s) 107 107

Hole Surface recombination velocity (cm/s) 107 107

Reflectivity Rf 0.8 0.1

CdTe absorbed based solar cell

• SCAPS 1D – Metal Work Function can be Set

• Barrier height for minority electron with
respect to EF/EV etc.
• Optical Property (Reflection/Transmission
Property)
Back contact - Effect??
The back contact significantly impacts solar cell performance by affecting
recombination, carrier transport, and overall efficiency through its
• work function
• defect density
• structural design

How affect the Device Performance ??

• Carrier Transport
 The back contact is crucial for collecting one type of charge carrier (electrons or
holes).
 A well-matched back-contact barrier impedes the transport of the undesired carrier,
which can lead to significant performance issues like current rollover in thin-film
solar cells.
• Recombination Losses
 High defect densities at the back-contact interface can cause severe
recombination losses, drastically reducing the cell's efficiency.
 Minimizing defects and optimizing passivation effects are key strategies to
reduce these losses.
Back Contacts

• Work Function Matching

 The work function of the back contact material directly influences the band alignment at the
heterojunction interface, affecting how effectively carriers are injected and collected.
 A higher work function generally improves charge collection efficiency.

• Structural Design
 Contact Area and Resistive Losses: Reducing the overall area of the back contact (e.g., in point-contact cells)
can decrease recombination and increase Voc.
 Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) Cells: which place both contacts on the rear, eliminate front-side shading and
improve optical efficiency.
 However, they require complex designs to balance charge carrier transport and collection without introducing
excessive recombination.

• Summary
 Reducing recombination losses at the back contact leads to an increase in Voc.
 Improving carrier collection and reducing resistive losses in the back contact can
enhance the fill factor.
MODELING AND TCAD SIMULATION
OF SOLAR PV CELL
BY
PROF. MUKUL KUMAR DAS
Dept. of Electronics Engineering
IIT – ISM DHANBAD

Teaching Assistant
Dr. Syed Sadique Anwer Askari Mr. Pranaw Kumar
Faculty, Manipal University SRF, IIT-ISM Dhanbad

Week 11: TCAD simulation: Demonstration

on simulation using SCAPS Contd..
Lecture 54: Effect of parasitic
absorption on the performance of Solar
Cell
Last Lecture:
— Demonstration: Effect of contact material
on the performance of thin film solar cell

In this lecture:
— Demonstration: How to set user-defined
absorption profile in SCAPS-1D simulator
— Demonstration: Effect of window layer
absorption on the performance of thin film
solar cell
CdTe-based Thin film Solar cell

CdTe absorbed based solar cell

Parasitic Absorption ??
Parasitic absorption in a solar cell refers to the absorption of incident photons by layers or
materials within the device that do not contribute to useful photocurrent generation. That
means, light is absorbed in regions where charge carriers (electron–hole pairs) cannot be
effectively collected.

Origin of Parasitic Absorption

 A solar cell typically has multiple layers:
 Transparent conducting oxide (TCO) or front contact
 Anti-reflection coating (ARC)
 Active absorber layer (e.g., CdTe, CIGS, a-Si, perovskite, or c-Si)
 Buffer layers / electron transport layers (ETL) / hole transport layers (HTL)
 Back reflector or back contact
Parasitic absorption mainly occurs in
 Transparent conducting oxide (TCO): Free-carrier absorption in doped oxides
like ITO or FTO.
 Emitter/Buffer or transport layers: Example: CdS emitter in CdTe absorbs
short-wavelength (blue/UV) light before it reaches the main absorber.
 Metal contacts / reflective layers: Some incident light is absorbed in metal
instead of reflecting back into absorber.
 Encapsulation materials / glass: Absorb UV/IR photons.
Parasitic Absorption

Mechanism
o When a photon is absorbed in these non-active layers, electron–hole pairs may be generated, but
these carriers are
o Either not in the depletion region
o or within the diffusion length
o Hence they recombine before collection.
o The absorbed photon energy is lost as heat.
o This reduces the number of photons available to generate photocurrent in the active absorber and
thus acts as an optical loss mechanism.

• Wavelength Dependence
 Short-wavelength loss (blue/UV): Due to parasitic absorption in buffer layers (CdS, SnO₂,
TiO₂).
 Long-wavelength loss (IR): Due to free carrier absorption in TCO and back reflector
metals.
 Mid-range absorption: Ideally should be harvested fully by absorber, but parasitics in
transport layers can still cause losses.
Parasitic Absorption

Strategies to Minimize Parasitic Absorption

o Use of ultrathin buffer/transport layers with high bandgap (transparent to visible).
o Replacing emitter/window layer (Say CdS) with wide-bandgap alternatives (ZnMgO, ZnS, TiO₂).
o Engineering of highly transparent TCOs with low free-carrier absorption.
o Application of nanostructured back reflectors instead of thick metals.
o Development of selective contacts that are transparent to most of the spectrum.

Summary
Parasitic absorption reduces
• Photocurrent (Jsc)
• Quantum efficiency (EQE)
• Thus overall efficiency (PCE)
• While also increasing heat losses.

Important:
• User defined absorption or (n,k) file in SCAPS -1D – can
be included
• Front surface texturing effect can be included by putting
effective (n,k) file of Emitter/TCO/ARC layer
MODELING AND TCAD SIMULATION
OF SOLAR PV CELL
BY
PROF. MUKUL KUMAR DAS
Dept. of Electronics Engineering
IIT – ISM DHANBAD

Teaching Assistant
Dr. Syed Sadique Anwer Askari Mr. Pranaw Kumar
Faculty, Manipal University SRF, IIT-ISM Dhanbad

Week 11: TCAD simulation: Demonstration

on simulation using SCAPS Contd..
Lecture 55: Demonstration of P-I-N
solar cell simulation using SCAPS 1D
Last Lecture:
— Demonstration: How to set user-defined absorption
profile in SCAPS-1D simulator
— Demonstration: Effect of window layer absorption on
the performance of thin film solar cell

In this lecture:
— Demonstration of P-I-N solar cell simulation
using SCAPS 1D
PIN Solar Cell

A PIN solar cell (p–i–n junction solar cell) has a structure where an intrinsic (i) layer of undoped
semiconductor is sandwiched between the p-type and n-type layers. This design provides several
advantages over simple p–n junction solar cells

Advantages

Improved Photon Absorption

 The intrinsic (i) layer is usually thick and lightly doped (or undoped), which allows
more photons to be absorbed before carriers recombine.
 This increases the probability of generating electron–hole pairs.

Efficient Carrier Collection

 The built-in electric field across the intrinsic region helps in quickly separating and
transporting photogenerated carriers (electrons and holes).
 Reduces recombination losses compared to a standard p–n junction.

Higher Quantum Efficiency

 PIN solar cells exhibit higher quantum efficiency, especially in the short-
wavelength (blue/UV) region, since carriers generated near the surface are more
effectively collected.
 PIN Solar Cell

Advantages
Better Performance at Low Illumination
 The wide depletion region in the i-layer ensures good carrier separation even at weak light
conditions.
 This is why amorphous silicon PIN cells are often used in indoor photovoltaics (like calculators
and sensors).
Improved Open Circuit Voltage
 Due to strong electric field in the i-region, PIN solar cells often achieve higher Voc compared
to homojunction cells.
 The thick intrinsic region suppresses tunneling and leakage currents, which improves the
open-circuit voltage (Voc)
Compatibility with Tandem Structures
 PIN cells are commonly stacked in tandem solar cells (multi-junction designs) to
capture a broader range of the solar spectrum efficiently.
 PIN structures can be realized with a variety of materials such as amorphous
silicon, perovskites, III-V semiconductors, etc.