UNIT-6

Knowledge based systems

6.1 Artificial intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial defines "man-
made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made thinking power."

Artificial intelligence is the ability of a machine to mimic human characteristics, such as decision-making,
future prediction, self-improvement, and learning.

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and engineering of
making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.
Goals of AI
 To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn, demonstrate,
explain, and advice its users.
 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand, think, learn, and
behave like humans.
Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −
 Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where
machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
 Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural
language spoken by humans.
 Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special
information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.
 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the
computer. For example,
o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial information or map of
the areas.
o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored portrait
made by forensic artist.
 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the
language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different
accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.
 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by
a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable
text.
 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to
detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump,
and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit
 intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the
new environment.
Advantages of Artificial Intelligence
Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:
o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high
accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that AI
systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple times
with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb,
exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI
technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per
customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car which
can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural
language processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.
Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence
Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:
o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of
maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot
work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or
programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not
have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may
sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting more
dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still AI
machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

6.2 Expert systems

 An expert system is a computer system whose performance is guided by specific, expert

knowledge in solving problems.
 It is a computer system that simulates the decision- making process of a human expert in a
specific domain.
 Expert system is one of the early (large- scale) successes of artificial intelligence.
  An expert system is an “intelligent” program that solves problems in a narrow problem area by
using high-quality, specific knowledge rather than an algorithm.
 Expert systems are used by most of the large or medium sized organization as a major tool for
improving productivity and quality.
 An expert system’s knowledge is obtained from expert sources and code in a form suitable for
the system to use in its process.

Example : There are many examples of an expert system. Some of them are given below –
MYCIN –
One of the earliest expert systems based on backward chaining. It can identify various bacteria that can
cause severe infections and can also recommend drugs based on the person’s weight.
DENDRAL –
It was an artificial intelligence-based expert system used for chemical analysis. It used a substance’s
spectrographic data to predict its molecular structure.
R1/XCON –
It could select specific software to generate a computer system wished by the user.
PXDES –
It could easily determine the type and the degree of lung cancer in a patient based on the data.
CaDet –
It is a clinical support system that could identify cancer in its early stages in patients.
DXplain –
It was also a clinical support system that could suggest a variety of diseases based on the findings of the
doctor.

Components of ES

For a workable expert system more than a set of rules is required.

We need four structures:

Knowledge Base - a data structure which contains the rules, often in IF THEN rules

Working Memory - a data structure which stores information about a specific problem

Inference Engine - a set of procedures for matching knowledge base with problem specific data in
working memory

User Interface– Controls the dialog between user and the system

Features of an Expert System

- Should have reasoning capacity. Reasoning may be goal-driven reasoning (backward chaining) or data-
driven reasoning (forward chaining). - Should cope with uncertainty.

- Should have proper knowledge representation i.e use knowledge rather than data.

- Should use symbolic representation for knowedge.

- Should use meta knowledge.

- Should use user interface.

- Should have ability to explain solutions with respect to problem specific.

Advantages of Expert System

- It provides consistent answer for repetitive decisions, processes and tasks.

- Hold and maintained significant level of information.

- Encourage organization to clarify the logic of their decision making.

- Ask question like human expertise.

Disdvantages of Expert System

- Lack of common sense needed in some decision making.

- Cannot make creative response as human expert would in unusual circumstances.

- Error may occur in the knowledge base and lead to wrong decision.

- Cannot adopt changing environment, unless knowledgebase is changed.

Applications

 Business

 Manufacturing

 Medicine

 Engineering

 Applied science

 Military

 Space

 Transportation

 Education

 Image analysis
 Chemical structure

 Agriculture

 Robotics and many more

6.3 Neural networks

The computing systems inspired by biological neural networks to perform different tasks with a huge
amount of data involved is called artificial neural networks or ANN. Different algorithms are used to
understand the relationships in a given set of data to produce the best results from the changing inputs.
The network is trained to produce the desired outputs, and different models are used to predict the
future results with the data. The nodes are interconnected so that it works like a human brain. Different
correlations and hidden patterns in raw data are used to cluster and classify the data.

A neural network is an interconnected assembly of simple processing elements, units or nodes, whose
functionality is loosely based on the animal neuron. The processing ability of the network is stored in the
inter unit connection strengths, or weights, obtained by a process of adaptation to, or learning from, a
set of training patterns.

Dr. Robert Hecht-Nielsen. He defines a neural network as:

"...a computing system made up of a number of simple, highly interconnected processing elements,
which process information by their dynamic state response to external inputs.
Some of the features of a Neural Network are listed below:

1. The human brain and nervous system are used to model neural network systems.
2. They can automatically extract features without the programmer’s input.
3. Every node in a neural network is a machine learning algorithm.
4. It comes in handy while working on difficulties with a large data se

Types of Neural Networks

There are many types of neural networks available or that might be in the development stage. They
can be classified depending on their: Structure, Data flow, Neurons used and their density, Layers and
their depth activation filters etc.
Types of Neural network
Advantages of Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Parallel processing capability:
Artificial neural networks have a numerical value that can perform more than one task simultaneously.
Storing data on the entire network:
Data that is used in traditional programming is stored on the whole network, not on a database. The
disappearance of a couple of pieces of data in one place doesn't prevent the network from working.
Capability to work with incomplete knowledge:
After ANN training, the information may produce output even with inadequate data. The loss of
performance here relies upon the significance of missing data.
Having a memory distribution:
For ANN is to be able to adapt, it is important to determine the examples and to encourage the network
according to the desired output by demonstrating these examples to the network. The succession of the
network is directly proportional to the chosen instances, and if the event can't appear to the network in
all its aspects, it can produce false output.
Having fault tolerance:
Extortion of one or more cells of ANN does not prohibit it from generating output, and this feature
makes the network fault-tolerance.
Disadvantages of Artificial Neural Network:
Assurance of proper network structure:
There is no particular guideline for determining the structure of artificial neural networks. The
appropriate network structure is accomplished through experience, trial, and error.
Unrecognized behavior of the network:
It is the most significant issue of ANN. When ANN produces a testing solution, it does not provide insight
concerning why and how. It decreases trust in the network.
Hardware dependence:
Artificial neural networks need processors with parallel processing power, as per their structure.
Therefore, the realization of the equipment is dependent.
Difficulty of showing the issue to the network:
ANNs can work with numerical data. Problems must be converted into numerical values before being
introduced to ANN. The presentation mechanism to be resolved here will directly impact the
performance of the network. It relies on the user's abilities.

ANN versus BNN

Before taking a look at the differences between Artificial Neural Network ANN and Biological Neural
Network BNN, let us take a look at the similarities based on the terminology between these two.
Biological Neural Network BNNBNN Artificial Neural Network ANNANN

Soma Node

Dendrites Input

Synapse Weights or Interconnections

 Axon Output

The following table shows the comparison between ANN and BNN based on some criteria mentioned.

Criteria BNN ANN

Processing Massively parallel, slow but Massively parallel, fast but inferior than BNN
superior than ANN

Size 1011 neurons and 102 to

1015 interconnections 104 nodes mainlydependsonthetypeofapplicationand
networkdesignermainlydependsonthetypeofapplicati
onandnetworkdesigner

Learning They can tolerate ambiguity Very precise, structured and formatted data is
required to tolerate ambiguity

Fault tolerance Performance degrades with It is capable of robust performance, hence has the
even partial damage potential to be fault tolerant

Storage Stores the information in the Stores the information in continuous memory
capacity synapse locations

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