THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

Brief History of Electromagnetic Theory

Electricity and magnetism – in physics, these two words often go together like
horse and carriage, in electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction. Let us meet the
original players in the electromagnetism: Oersted, Ampere, Faraday, Henry and Maxwell
along with many others who laid the groundwork for the understanding of the concepts of
electromagnetic theory. Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted discovered accidentally,
1820 that magnetic needle is deflected when the current in a nearby wire varies – a
phenomenon establishing a relationship between electricity and magnetism.

Figure 1. Oersted’s setup on the discovery of electromagnetism

Andre-Marie Ampere, influenced by Oertsed’s discovery, performed a series of

experiments designed to elucidate the exact nature of the relationship between
electric current-flow and magnetism, as well as the relationships governing the
behaviour of electric currents in various types of conductors. These experiments led
Ampere to formulate his famous law of electromagnetism, called after him Ampere’s
Law that describes mathematically the magnetic force between two electrical
currents.

Figure 2. Illustrative explanation of Faraday’s experiment

Michael Faraday made his first discovery of electromagnetism in 1821. He took the
work of Oersted and Ampere on the magnetic properties of electrical currents as a
starting point and in 1831 achieved an electrical current from a changing magnetic
field, a phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction. He found that when an
electrical current passed through a coil, another very short current was generated in a
nearby coil. This discovery marked a decisive milestone in the progress not only of
science but also of society, and is used today to generate electricity on a large scale power
stations.

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 Joseph Henry, while working with electromagnets in 1829, made important design
improvements by insulating the wire instead of the iron core. He was able to wrap a large
number of turns of wire around the core and thus greatly increase the power of the
magnet. He had made an electromagnet that could support 2 063 pounds, a world record
at the time. He also searched for electromagnetic induction and in 1831, he started to
build a large electromagnet for that purpose. He was the first to notice the principle of
self- induction. A brilliant physicist and mathematician, James Clerk Maxwell, proposed
Faraday’s electromagnetic induction to happen even in empty space. The symmetry
between the fields fascinated him so much. He added two basic principles of
electromagnetism: (1) a changing electric field in space produces a magnetic field, (2) a
changing magnetic field in space produces electric field.

Maxwell proposed that the alteration of electric and magnetic fields, generating and
propelling each other in space, can be thought of as a form of moving energy. Maxwell
further thought of this form of energy as a wave which he called electromagnetic wave.
Using mathematical computations based on his theoretical assumption and the
numerical results of Faraday’s experiments, Maxwell concluded that the speed of
electromagnetic waves must be 3 x 108 m/s. It was only after the death of Maxwell which
a German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, designed an experimental set up that was electrical
in nature and able to generate and detect electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic Waves

We are surrounded with thousands of waves. They collide with our bodies and some
pass through us. Mostly are invisible but we can perceive some. The warmth of the sun and
the light that we see are just few of them. These waves share similar characteristics, yet, they
are unique in some ways. These waves are called ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) WAVES.
EM waves are different from mechanical waves in some important ways. EM waves are
disturbance that transfers energy through a field. They can travel through medium but what
makes them strange is that they can also transmit through empty space.

Radiation is the term used to describe the transfer of energy in the form of EM wave.
For a mechanical wave to travel, it must vibrate the medium as it moves. This makes use some
of the waves’ energy. In the end, it makes them transfer all energy to the medium. As for EM
waves, they can travel through empty space or vacuum so they do not give up their energy.
This enables EM waves to cross great distances such as that from the sun to the Earth (which
is almost vacuum) without losing much energy. In vacuum, EM waves travel at a constant
speed of 300,000,000 meters per second (3.0 x 10 8 m/s). At this rate, the rays of the sun take
8 minutes to reach the Earth.
Electromagnetic waves can also transmit with a material medium. They can also transfer
energy to the medium itself. When they interact with matter, their energy can be converted into
many different forms of energy. With these characteristics, electromagnetic waves are used for
a wide variety of purposes.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

The wave shown in Figure 3, illustrates properties that are used to describe waves. A
crest is the highest point of a wave. For an electromagnetic wave, this is the point in time
when the field is strongest. A trough is the lowest point of a wave. For an EM wave, this is the
point in time when the field is weakest.

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Figure 3. Parts of a Wave Source:[Link]
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Different types of radiation are defined by their wavelengths, amplitude, and frequency.

 Wavelength is the distance between two identical points on successive waves. In

most cases, wavelength is measured according to the distance between two
successive wave crests or two successive troughs. A higher frequency causes a
shorter wavelength and greater energy.
 Amplitude is a measure of the energy a wave carries. It is determined by measuring the
distance from the midpoint of the wave to either a crest or a trough.
 Frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass by a certain point in a given time.
A wave with high frequency generally has more energy than a wave with lower
frequency. Frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz). One hertz equals one cycle per second.
Thus, Hertz can be expressed as “number of waves per second”. The higher the
frequency, the closer the waves are together and the greater the energy carried by the
waves will be.

The Electric and Magnetic Fields Together

Accelerating electrons produce

electromagnetic waves. These waves are a
combination of electric and magnetic
fields. A changing
magnetic field produces an electric field
and a changing electric field produces a
magnetic field. As accelerated electrons
produce an electric field of a wave, the
varying electric field produces the wave’s
magnetic field. Both the electric field and
the magnetic field oscillate perpendicular to
each other and to the direction of the
Figure 4. Electromagnetic Wave
propagating wave.
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Speed of EM Wave

All electromagnetic waves can travel through a medium but unlike other types of waves,
they can also travel in vacuum. They travel in vacuum at a speed of 3x108 m/s and denoted as c,
the speed of light. The wave speed, frequency and wavelength are related by the following
equation:

v = f
where:
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 v = wave speed or c (speed of light) expressed in meters per second (m/s)
f = frequency expressed in Hertz (Hz)
 = wavelength expressed in meters (m)
Since all the electromagnetic waves (EM) have the same speed and that is equal to the
speed of light, as wavelength increases, the frequency of the wave increases.

Through the years, the advancement on the knowledge about electromagnetic waves led us
to a modern technological world.

Example Problems:
(Assume that the waves propagate in a vacuum)

1. What is the frequency of a wave with wavelength of 20 m?

Given: v=c=3 x 108 m/s

 = 20 m Required

f=?

Solution:
From the original formula: v=c=f
we will derive the formula for f which is f = c / 

substituting the values f = 3 x

108 m/s
20 m
f = 1.5 x 107 Hz

2. What is the frequency of EM waves with wavelength of 5 x 10-7 m?

Given: v=c=3 x 108 m/s

 = 5 x 10-7 m

Required: f = ? Formula:
v=c=f
f=c/
f = 3 x 108 m/s
5 x 10-7 m
f = 6 x 1014 Hz

3. Calculate the wavelength of radiation with a frequency of 610 kHz. ( Note: 1

kHz = 1000 Hz)
Given: v=c=3 x 108 m/s
f = 610 kHz x (1000 Hz/1 kHz) = 610,000 Hz

Required:  = ? Formula:
v=c=f
=c/f
 = 3 x 108 m/s
1.1 x 105 Hz
 = 490 m

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