PHYS 365: Acoustics, Optics and Modern Physics

Week 07
Adapted from copyrighted materials in William Moebs et al.,
University Physics Vol. 1: OpenStax. ©2021 Rice University.
Table of Content (OSV1:16.5,17.6, 17.7;
OSV3:3.1; EN.7)
Ø Superposition of two harmonic waves of different frequencies
Ø Beating frequency
Ø Doppler effect
Ø Doppler shift examples
Ø Light as an electromagnetic wave
Ø Coherent vs incoherent light sources
Ø Two-slit interference
[Link]
Slightly mismatched frequencies cause audible “beats”
Full video: [Link]
Superposition of two harmonic waves of
different frequencies
Ø Standing wave is formed by the superposition of two
waves of the same amplitude, frequency, and wavelength
traveling in opposite directions.

Ø Waves with different frequencies can be added too!

Ø The superposition (the constructive and destructive

interference) of two waves of the same amplitude, but
different frequency produces a pulsing sound wave called
“Beat”.
Mathematics of beat frequency

Ø Consider two waves traveling to the right with the same amplitude
and phase (𝜑! = 𝜑" = 0) but different frequencies:

𝜔! 𝜔"
𝜔! > 𝜔" 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘! = > 𝑘" =
𝑣 𝑣

𝑦! 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔! 𝑡 − 𝑘! 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦" 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔" 𝑡 − 𝑘" 𝑥

Ø Let’s represent these equations in phasor forms:

𝑦6 ! 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 # $!%&'!( 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦6 " 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 # $"%&'"(

Mathematics of beat frequency
𝑦6 ! 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 # $!%&'!(
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦6 " 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 # $"%&'"(

Ø Using a trick will make these waves look similar:

1 1
𝜔! = 𝜔! + 𝜔" + (𝜔! − 𝜔" )
2 2

1 1
𝜔" = 𝜔! + 𝜔" − (𝜔! − 𝜔" )
2 2
Ø Now we can define:
1
𝜔)*+ = 𝜔! + 𝜔" 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝜔 = 𝜔! − 𝜔"
2
!
𝜔)*+ = 𝜔! + 𝜔" is called the average angular velocity.
"
!
𝜔,-. = 𝜔! − 𝜔" is called the modulation frequency.
"
Mathematics of beat frequency
𝑦6 ! 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 # $!%&'!( 𝑦6 " 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 # $"%&'"(
1
𝜔)*+ = 𝜔! + 𝜔" ∆𝜔 = 𝜔! − 𝜔"
2
1 1
𝜔! = 𝜔)*+ + ∆𝜔 𝜔" = 𝜔)*+ − ∆𝜔
2 2
1 1
𝑘! = 𝑘)*+ + ∆𝑘 𝑘" = 𝑘)*+ − ∆𝑘
2 2
Ø Now we add the two waves to yield the resultant wave:
! ! ! !
# $#$%%/"∆$%&'#$%(&"∆'( # $#$%%&"∆$%&'#$%(/"∆'(
𝑦= 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐴𝑒

! ! ! !
# "∆$%&"∆'( &# "∆$%&"∆'(
𝑦= 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑒 + 𝐴𝑒 𝑒# $#$%%&'#$%(

Ø Using Euler’s formula we have:

1 1
𝑦= 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos( ∆𝜔𝑡 − ∆𝑘𝑥) 𝑒 # $#$%%&'#$%(
2 2
Mathematics of beat frequency
1 1
𝑦= 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos( ∆𝜔𝑡 − ∆𝑘𝑥) 𝑒 # $#$%%&'#$%(
2 2

𝑦= 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos(𝜔,-. 𝑡 − 𝑘,-. 𝑥) 𝑒 # $#$%%&'#$%(

Ø This shows a wave with the average frequency and wavenumber of the two
original waves meaning that the medium oscillates at frequency 𝑓!"# .
Ø Amplitude is also a wave relying on ∆𝜔 and ∆𝑘 meaning that the amplitude
is modulated as 2𝐴 cos(𝜔$%& 𝑡 − 𝑘$%& 𝑥).

Parameters used: A=1 unit, f1= 5 Hz, f2= 5.5 Hz, fbeat= 0.5 Hz, and v= 340 m/s
Beating frequency in the situation when the
two frequencies are very nearly equal: 𝜔𝟏 ≈ 𝜔𝟐
Ø In this case: 𝜔𝒂𝒗𝒆 ≈ 𝜔𝟏 𝜔𝒂𝒗𝒆 ≈ 𝜔𝟐 𝜔𝒎𝒐𝒅 ≈ 0
Ø A history graph of the wave at the detector, x = 0 shows a
slowly changing “amplitude” for the rapid oscillation at
frequency 𝜔𝒂𝒗𝒆 .
Ø This oscillation determines the note you hear; it differs
little from the two notes at frequencies 𝑓𝟏 and 𝑓𝟐 .
Ø The time-dependent amplitude, shown as a dashed line,
that is given by the term 2𝐴 cos(𝜔$%& 𝑡) is called a
modulation of the wave, (which is where 𝜔𝒎𝒐𝒅 gets its
name).
Ø The alternating loud and soft sounds as the amplitude
rises and falls is due to constructive and destructive
interference of the two waves.
Ø This is why you hear it as beat!
 Beating frequency
Ø For each full cycle of the modulation envelope (from a
peak to a trough and back to a peak or loud-soft-loud),
there are two beats because both constructive and
destructive interference occur within that envelope
cycle.
Ø The beat frequency describes the rate of constructive
and destructive interference between two waves, which
is the difference between the two original frequencies.
Ø The beat frequency, which is the number of beats per
second, is twice the modulation frequency:

𝜔,-. 1 𝜔! 𝜔"
𝑓1+)% = 2𝑓,-. = 2 = 2× − = 𝑓! − 𝑓"
2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2𝜋

𝑓1+)% = 𝑓! − 𝑓"
 Top Hat Question
You hear six beats per second when two sound tones are
generated. The frequency of one tone is 500 Hz. The frequency of
the other is:

A) 503 Hz
B) 497 Hz
C) 506 Hz
D) 494 Hz
E) A & B
F) C & D

1
favg = ( f1 + f2 ) !"#$% = ! ! #$% = !" ! ! !
2
 Top Hat Question
You hear six beats per second when two sound tones are
generated. The frequency of one tone is 500 Hz. The frequency of
the other is:

A) 503 Hz
B) 497 Hz
C) 506 Hz
D) 494 Hz
E) A & B
F) C & D

1
favg = ( f1 + f2 ) !"#$% = ! ! #$% = !" ! ! !
2
 Top Hat Question
Two tuning forks emit f1 = 523 Hz and f2 = 527 Hz, respectively.
What do you hear?

A) A sound at 1050 Hz disappearing 4 times a second

B) A sound at 1050 Hz disappearing 2 times a second
C) A sound at 2 Hz disappearing every millisecond
D) A sound at 525 Hz disappearing 4 times a second
E) A sound at 525 Hz disappearing 2 times a second

1
favg = ( f1 + f2 ) !"#$% = ! ! #$% = !" ! ! !
2
 Top Hat Question
Two tuning forks emit f1 = 523 Hz and f2 = 527 Hz, respectively.
What do you hear?

A) A sound at 1050 Hz disappearing 4 times a second

B) A sound at 1050 Hz disappearing 2 times a second

C) A sound at 2 Hz disappearing every millisecond
D) A sound at 525 Hz disappearing 4 times a second
E) A sound at 525 Hz disappearing 2 times a second

1
favg = ( f1 + f2 ) !"#$% = ! ! #$% = !" ! ! !
2
The doppler effect
 more info
[Link]
Doppler Effect
Ø When the source, observers, and air are stationary, the wavelength and
frequency are the same in all directions and to all observers.
Ø Sounds emitted by a source moving to the right: The wavelength is reduced,
and consequently, the frequency is increased in the direction of motion, so
that the observer on the right hears a higher-pitched sound, and for the
observer on the left, the wavelength is increased, and the frequency is
reduced.
Ø The same effect is produced when the observers move relative to the source.
 Doppler Effect
Ø A source of sound waves moving away from Pablo and toward
Nancy at a steady speed vs.
Ø After a wave crest leaves the source, its motion is governed by
the properties of the medium.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Doppler Effect
Ø As the wave source approaches Nancy, she detects a frequency
𝒇 ′ which is slightly higher than 𝒇, the natural frequency of the
source.

Ø As the wave source recedes away from Pablo, he detects a

frequency 𝒇′ which is slightly lower than 𝒇, the natural
frequency of the source.
Doppler Effect: Moving Sources and/or Listeners

Listener Source
D S
𝑣
𝑣! > 0
x
Positive direction: listener to source 𝑣" >0

Ø Sign conventions:
Ø Listener-to-source distance is > 0
Ø 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 signs follow suit (take the same direction)
Ø Speed of sound 𝑣 > 0 (always)
Case 1: listener moving toward stationary source

Detector Source
D S
𝑣

𝑣" =0
𝑣! >0 x
Positive direction: listener to source

In the air, we have 𝜆 = 𝑣/𝑓. The listener encounters wave crests at a

*/*&
higher rate, since she is moving into them: 𝑓′ = . This rate 𝑓′ is the
7
frequency she hears. Combine:

𝑣1 (frequency goes up as
𝑓′ = 1 + 𝑓
𝑣 listener approaches)
Case 2: source moving toward stationary listener

Listener Source
L 𝑣 S

𝑣# =0 x
Positive direction: listener to source 𝑣" <0

Wavelength in air for a moving source shrinks:

* ! *&*'
𝜆8 = 𝜆 − 𝑣3 𝑇3 = − 𝑣3 =
9 9 9
*
Listener hears frequency 𝑓′ =
78
Combine to get: 𝑣
𝑓′ = 𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣3
Case 3: source also moving toward listener

Listener Source
L 𝑣 S

𝑣# >0 x
Positive direction: listener to source 𝑣" <0
*&*'
Wavelength in air: 𝜆 =
9
*/*&
Listener hears frequency 𝑓′ =
7
Combine to get:

𝑣 + 𝑣1
𝑓′ = 𝑓 (general case)
𝑣 − 𝑣3
Doppler Effect
𝑣 + 𝑣2
𝑓8 = 𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑣

𝑣 − 𝑣2
𝑓′ = 𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑣

𝑣
𝑓′ = 𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝑣 − 𝑣3

𝑣
𝑓′ = 𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝑣 + 𝑣3

𝑣 is the speed of the sound in the air, 𝑣2 is the speed of the source, 𝑣< and
is the speed of the detector.
Doppler Effect
Ø The doppler equations can be summarized in one equation
(the top sign is for approaching movement and bottom
sign is for receding motion):
!±!!
𝑓′ = 𝑓
!∓!"

Ø Alternative way to keep track of signs:

Ø Moving together: frequency increases.
Ø Moving apart: frequency decreases.
Ø Work through the signs based on that.
Doppler Effect
 Doppler effect applications in science
and engineering
Ø The Doppler shift in ultrasound can be used to measure blood velocity.
Ø Police uses the Doppler shift in radar to measure car velocities.
Ø In meteorology, the Doppler shift is used to track the motion of storm
clouds; such “Doppler Radar” can give the velocity and direction of
rain or snow in weather fronts.
Ø In astronomy, we can examine the light emitted from distant galaxies
and determine their speed relative to ours. As galaxies move away
from us, their light is shifted to a lower frequency, and so to a longer
wavelength—the so-called red shift. Such information from galaxies
far, far away has allowed us to estimate the age of the universe (from
the Big Bang) as about 14 billion years.
 Doppler weather radar uses the Doppler shift of reflected
radar signals to measure wind speeds and thus better gauge
the severity of a storm.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Shown is a Hubble Space Telescope picture of a quasar which is
receding away from us at more than 90% of the speed of light.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Doppler Effect
Ø The doppler equations can be summarized in one equation
(the top sign is for approaching movement and bottom
sign is for receding motion):
!±!!
𝑓′ = 𝑓
!∓!"

Ø Alternative way to keep track of signs:

Ø Moving together: frequency increases.
Ø Moving apart: frequency decreases.
Ø Work through the signs based on that.
Example 1
How fast would you need to move toward a stationary
sound source to make its apparent frequency increase by
50%? (use 𝑣 = 344 m/s)

𝑣 ± 𝑣% #$#/
𝑓′ = 𝑓 𝑣! = 0, 𝑓" = 𝑓 𝑓 " = 1.5𝑓
𝑣 ∓ 𝑣& #

𝑓" 𝑓" − 𝑓
𝑣% = 𝑣 − 𝑣 = 𝑣
𝑓 𝑓
1.5𝑓 − 𝑓
𝑣% = (344) = (0.5)(344) = 𝟏𝟕𝟐 𝐦/𝐬
𝑓
 Example 2
How fast would a sound source need to move toward you to
make its apparent frequency increase by 50%? (use 𝑣 = 344 m/s)

𝑣 ± 𝑣% #
𝑓′ = 𝑓 𝑣% = 0, 𝑓" = 𝑓 𝑓 " = 1.5𝑓
𝑣 ∓ 𝑣& #'#0

𝑓 𝑓" − 𝑓
𝑣! = 𝑣 − 𝑣 = 𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑓′
1.5𝑓 − 𝑓 1
𝑣% = (344) = ( )(344) = 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝐦/𝐬
1.5𝑓 3
Note: The two answers are not the same and it shows the
two cases are NOT symmetric! Why?
 Top Hat Question
You are sitting in your car on the side of the highway. You hear the siren of
a fast-moving ambulance as it first approaches you, passes by you very
quickly, and then drives away from you. The siren frequency is 1000 Hz.
Which graph below best describes the frequency that you hear?
A
B
%#'# %#'#
C %#&# %#&#
%### %###
()

()
D A !$#
!"# B !$#
!"#
# % " ( & ) $ # % " ( & ) $
!"#$%&' !"#$%&'

%#'# %#'#
%#&# %#&#
%###
()

%###

()
C !$#
!"# D !$#
!"#
# % " ( & ) $ # % " ( & ) $
!"#$%&' !"#$%&'
 Top Hat Question
You are sitting in your car on the side of the highway. You hear the siren of a
fast-moving ambulance as it first approaches you, passes by you very
quickly, and then drives away from you. The siren frequency is 1000 Hz.
Which graph below best describes the frequency that you hear?
A
B
%#'# %#'#
C %#&# %#&#
%### %###
()

()
D A !$#
!"# B !$#
!"#
# % " ( & ) $ # % " ( & ) $
!"#$%&' !"#$%&'

%#'# %#'#
%#&# %#&#
%###
()

%###

()
C !$#
!"# D !$#
!"#
# % " ( & ) $ # % " ( & ) $
!"#$%&' !"#$%&'
 Top Hat Question Feedback

Answer = C. When the ambulance is driving directly toward you

(you are standing on the side of the highway), the Doppler shift
is going to be to a constant higher frequency because the source
is moving toward you at a constant speed. Similarly, the Doppler
shift is going to be to a constant lower frequency when it is
driving away from you. There is going to be a very quick
transition between these two frequencies as the ambulance
passes by you.

%#'#
%#&#
%###
()

C !$#
!"#
# % " ( & ) $
!"#$%&'
 Top Hat Question Feedback

However, the further you are away from the road, the more the
frequency-time graph will resemble option D. To understand why,
you have to imagine that you divide the ambulance’s velocity into a
component that is directed toward you and one that is directed in a
direction perpendicular to the line between you and the
ambulance. Only the component of the ambulance that is directed
toward you contributes to the Doppler shift and this component
becomes smaller as the ambulance approaches you.

%#'#
%#&#
%###

()
D !$#
!"#
# % " ( & ) $
!"#$%&'
 ex.7.2
Numeric Top Hat Question
Standing by a train track, you hear a train whistle at 1410 Hz
as the train approaches and 775 Hz after it passes by. How fast
is it going? (Use v=344 m/s)
Express your answer as integer and in units of m/s.
Do not include the unit.

𝑣 ± 𝑣%
𝑓′ = 𝑓
𝑣 ∓ 𝑣&
 ex.7.2
Solution
Approaching:
8
𝑣 + 𝑣2
𝑓= 𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣<

𝑣+0
1410 𝐻𝑧 =
𝑣 − 𝑣<
𝑓 𝑣 ± 𝑣%
𝑓′ = 𝑓
Receding:
𝑣 ∓ 𝑣&
8
𝑣 + 𝑣2
𝑓= 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣<

𝑣+0
775 𝐻𝑧 = 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣<
 ex.7.2
Numeric Top Hat Question
Eliminating f:

𝑣
1410 𝐻𝑧 = 𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣<
𝑣
775 𝐻𝑧 = 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣<

344 𝑚/𝑠 + 𝑣<

1410 𝐻𝑧 = 𝑚 775
344 − 𝑣<
𝑠

𝑚
𝑣< = 100
𝑠

𝑓 = 1000 𝐻𝑧
More Challenging Example
A dolphin is moving at speed 𝑣. and emits an echo location
sound at frequency 𝑓. The sound reflects off a stationary
object and returns to the dolphin. At what frequency will
that sound be heard? Find the ratio of apparent frequency to
the original frequency.
Solution
Frequency shift happens twice:
1. Dolphin is moving toward a stationary detector, the apparent
frequency at the stationary detector is:
"
𝑣
𝑣% = 0, 𝑓 = 𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣!
2. Dolphin as a detector is moving toward a stationary source, the
apparent frequency by moving detector (the dolphin) is:

𝑣 + 𝑣% "
""
𝑣 + 𝑣% 𝑣 𝑣 + 𝑣%
𝑣! = 0, 𝑓 = 𝑓 = 𝑓= 𝑓
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣! 𝑣 − 𝑣!
Electromagnetic waves
Light as a Wave
Ø Young’s two source interference experiment
proved that light is a wave.

Ø Light usually moves along straight lines

but it spreads out when passing through a
narrow slit or a small hole (ʻdiffractionʼ).

Ø Light has other wave effects: interference,

refraction, Doppler effect, shock waves, etc.

Ø Light also has particle properties, like

momentum (recoil of atoms, radiation
pressure).
Electromagnetic waves
Ø Light is a transverse travelling wave of electromagnetic fields;

Halliday & Resnick Fig 33-5

Ø The speed of light in vacuum is defined (not measured) a:s

𝑐 ≡ 299 792 458 m/s
𝑐 ≈ 3.00×10= m/s
Spectrum of the Electromagnetic waves

Halliday & Resnick Fig 33-1

Visible light: roughly 400 to 700 nm
Doppler shift for light
Ø Light follows the same rules as the other waves we’ve dealt with, with
one exception: it has no preferred rest frame.
Ø The reason is the speed of light is constant. Light waves do not have a
medium and every inertial observer measures the same light speed.
*±*&
Ø This means the Doppler shift is different: 𝑓′ = 𝑓 does not apply.
*∓*'
Ø This was the start of the theory of relativity (not part of PHYS 365)
Ø Doppler shift for the light wave is calculated through:
𝑐±𝑣
𝑓$ = 𝑓
𝑐∓𝑣

𝑣 is the relative speed between the source and observer.

Ø Here, both source and observer are treated symmetrically — their relative
velocity is all that matters.
Ø The shift arises not from changing the wave speed, but from how time
and space themselves transform.
Coherence and interference
(or, waves cancelling waves out)
Coherence
Ø Two waves are coherent if:
1. They are monochromatic (single frequency).
2. There is a constant phase relation between them (in phase, out of phase or
something in between).
Ø Examples:
1. Laser light
2. Light from the same source split into two beams (e.g., in a double-slit
experiment)
Incoherency
Ø Two waves are incoherent if:
1. No fixed phase relationship.
Ø They can be polychromatic ( multiple frequency) or monochromatic.
Ø Examples:
1. Sun light
2. Two independent light bulbs.
 Initial phase relationships
2 coherent waves in 1D:
𝑦! 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴! cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙!
𝑦" 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴" cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙"
In phase
Ø In phase when:
t

𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙! = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙"
𝜙! − 𝜙" = 0 + 2𝜋𝑛

0.8

0.6 Ø Out of phase when:

0.4

Out of phase
0.2

t
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
𝜙! − 𝜙" = 𝜋 + 2𝜋𝑛
-0.8

-1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 poll.8.1
Top Hat Question
A wave of wavelength λ passes along a string.
What is the phase difference between two points on the string that
are a distance λ/4 apart?

A) 0 radians
B) π/4 radians
C) π/2 radians
D) 3π/4 radians
E) π radians
 poll.8.1
Top Hat Question
A wave of wavelength λ passes along a string.
What is the phase difference between two points on the string that
are a distance λ/4 apart?

A) 0 radians
B) π/4 radians
C) π/2 radians
D) 3π/4 radians
E) π radians
Interference: Adding path length difference
In phase: 𝜙! − 𝜙" = 2𝜋𝑛 Out of phase: 𝜙! − 𝜙" = 𝜋 + 2𝜋𝑛
𝒓𝟏
𝟐
𝒓 𝒓𝟏

𝟐
𝒓
In phase: Out of phase:
∆𝑟 = 𝑟! − 𝑟" = 𝑛𝜆 1
∆𝑟 = 𝑟! − 𝑟" = 𝑛 + 𝜆
𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … 2
𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …
Interference of in-phase coherent waves
Consider 2 coherent, in-phase sources S1 and S2 at different
distances from observation point P at t=0:
In phase
sources:

𝑦^ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴^ cos 𝑘𝑟^ + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙^ 𝜙! = 𝜙"

P 𝑦_ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴_ cos 𝑘𝑟_ + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙_
Waves arrive at P in phase if:
r1 r2 𝑘𝑟^ = 𝑘𝑟_ + 2𝜋𝑛
∆𝑟 = 𝑟^ − 𝑟_ = 𝑛𝜆
In phase if path lengths r1 and r2 are equal
S1 S2 or differ by an integer number of
wavelengths.
In these cases, interference is constructive
and point P is an antinode.
Interference of coherent waves
If r1 and r2 differ by a half-integer number of wavelengths,
interference is destructive, and point P is a node.
In general, for two in-phase coherent sources:
P

Constructive Interference
∆𝑟 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒎𝝀 where 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
r1 r2

Destructive Interference
∆𝑟 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = (𝒎 + 𝟏/𝟐)𝝀 where 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, … S1 S2

Note that these are the two extremes. Phase differences at any
particular point can be partially in phase.
 poll.8.2
Top Hat Question

Sources out of phase "#" # "!" = !

The interference at P is
A) Constructive
B) Destructive
C) Somewhere in between
 poll.8.2
Top Hat Question
∆𝑟 = 𝑟" − 𝑟! = 6 − 4 = 2𝜆
But sources are not in the same phase!

Sources out of phase: Δ𝜑 = 𝜑" − 𝜑! = 𝜋

∆𝜙%-%)B = 𝑘∆𝑟 + Δ𝜑

2𝜋
The interference at P is ∆𝜙%-%)B = 2𝜆 + 𝜋
𝜆
A) Constructive
∆𝜙%-%)B = 4𝜋 + 𝜋
B) Destructive
C) Somewhere in between ∆𝜙%-%)B = 5𝜋
 poll.8.2
Can these two sources of light with initial phase difference
of 𝝅 interfere constructively? For 𝑊: ∆𝑟 = 𝑟" − 𝑟! = 4 − 3.5 = 7
"
But sources are not in the same phase!
𝑾
Sources out of phase: Δ𝜑 = 𝜑" − 𝜑! = 𝜋

∆𝜙%-%)B = ∆𝑘∆𝑟 + Δ𝜑

2𝜋 𝜆
∆𝜙%-%)B = +𝜋
𝜆 2

∆𝜙%-%)B = 2𝜋

Yes, they can interfere constructively, if the path difference adds an extra π
phase (or any odd multiple of π) to cancel out their initial π difference.
 poll.8.5
Interference in Space

Sources in phase
"#! ! ""! = !
At which point will there be maximum
constructive interference?
wave
fronts A: Constructive as troughs meet troughs
C: Constructive as crests meet crests.

At which point will there be maximum

destructive interference?

B and D: Destructive as crests meets troughs.

Lines are crests (highest positive amplitude).

Exactly between crests are troughs (highest negative amplitude).
 Interference in Space

Sources in phase
2 "#! ! ""! = !
1
wave 1. maximum constructive
fronts

2. maximum destructive

Lines are crests (highest positive amplitude).

Exactly between crests are troughs (highest negative amplitude).
 Antinodal curves
At all points on antinodal curves
(black):
antinode

m=1 Ø Waves arrive in phase

S1 Ø Constructive interference
node
m=0 Ø Maximum intensity
Ø m = # of wavelengths 𝜆 by
m=-1 which path lengths differ
S2

Nodes sit halfway in-between

antinodes
Ø Zero intensity
Interference in Space

Sources in phase
"#! ! ""! = !

Antinodal lines,
constructive
inteference. Intensity
is at a local maximum.

Nodal lines,
destructive
inteference. Intensity
is at a local minimum.
Noise Reduction through Destructive Interference
Ø Headphones designed to cancel noise
with destructive interference.
Ø They create a sound wave exactly
opposite to the incoming sound.
Ø These headphones can be more effective
than the simple passive attenuation used
in most ear protection.
Ø Such headphones were used on the
record-setting, around-the-world nonstop
flight of the Voyager aircraft in 1986 to
protect the pilots’ hearing from engine
noise.
Two-slit interference
(or, light cancelling out light)
Two-Slit Interference

S1
Constructive
interference
at discrete
intervals

S2

Monochromatic source S1 and S2 are

coherent sources
Two slit interference pattern using water

Full video at [Link]

Interference Patterns: Central Bright Area

Ø First constructive interference

occurs at the center point.

Ø The two waves travel the same

distance therefore, they arrive
in phase
Interference Patterns
! 7 C7 D7
Δ𝑟 = 𝑚 + 𝜆= , , ,…
" " " "

Ø This is destructive interference

Ø A dark “fringe” occurs.

Δ𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 = 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆

This is constructive interference

A bright “fringe” occurs.

Interference Equations
NOT TO SCALE
𝜃 Horizontal scale >> vertical
𝛿 Rays r1 and r2 are nearly parallel
S1
𝜃& m=0
d 𝜃
r1 m=1
S2 𝜃% y
r2 m=2
R=distance to screen intensity

If R>>d then r1 and r2 are essentially parallel (paraxial approximation):

𝜃" ≈ 𝜃! ≈ 𝜃 Approximation
Δ𝑟 = 𝑟" − 𝑟! = 𝛿 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 - Unavoidable if
you want a
Constructive interference: closed-form
solution

Δ𝑟 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

Destructive interference:
Δ𝑟 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 poll.8.8
Top Hat Question
What is the path length difference between the two waves at
the 3rd bright fringe seen on a screen?

A) 0

B) λ Central bright fringe

First dark fringe

C) 2 λ
First bright fringe
D) 3 λ

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 poll.8.8
Top Hat Question
What is the path length difference between the two waves at
the 3rd bright fringe seen on a screen?

A) 0 Central bright fringe

B) λ First dark fringe

First bright fringe

C) 2 λ

D) 3 λ m=0 Δ𝑟 = 0
m=1 Δ𝑟 = λ
m=2 Δ𝑟 = 2λ
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
m=3 Δ𝑟 = 3λ
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 poll.8.7
Top Hat Question
Red light (λ=664 nm) is used in Young’s experiment according to the drawing.
what is the total phase difference between the waves from the two slits at the
location of the third (m = 3) bright fringe?

A)zero radians
B) π radians
C) 2π radians
D)4π radians
E) 6π radians

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 poll.8.7
Top Hat Question
Red light (λ=664 nm) is used in Young’s experiment according to the drawing.
what is the total phase difference between the waves from the two slits at the
location of the third (m = 3) bright fringe?
m=1 Δ𝑟 = λ Δ𝜙1%2!3 = 2𝜋
A)zero radians m=2 Δ𝑟 = 2λ Δ𝜙1%2!3 = 4𝜋
m=3 Δ𝑟 = 3λ Δ𝜙1%2!3 = 6𝜋
B) π radians
C) 2π radians
D)4π radians
E) 6π radians

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 poll.8.8
Top Hat Question
What is the path length difference between the two waves at
the 3rd dark fringe seen on a screen?

A) 2.5 λ

B) 3 λ Central bright fringe

First dark fringe

C)3.5 λ
First bright fringe
D)4 λ

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 poll.8.8
Top Hat Question
What is the path length difference between the two waves at
the 3rd dark fringe seen on a screen?

𝑑 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
A) 2.5 λ 1 Central bright fringe
𝑑 = 3+ 𝜆
2
B) 3 λ 7 First dark fringe
𝑑= 𝜆
2
C)3.5 λ First bright fringe

𝑑 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
D)4 λ 1
𝑑 = 2+ 𝜆
2
5 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑= 𝜆
2
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
 Distance from the central Line: Linear fringe formula
𝜃
S1 𝛿
r1
d=1mm 𝜃
𝜃
y
S2 r2

R=1m intensity

𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝑅
Paraxial approx.: 𝑦 = 𝑅 tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝑅 sin 𝜃 Approximation #2
- Avoidable but
Combine with: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
convenient
𝑚𝜆 - Accurate within
𝑦= 𝑅
𝑑 1% for 𝜃 < 8o
Example: Find the location of the second dark fringe on the screen.

𝜆=632.8 nm 𝑟& y
m=1 dark
d=0.125 mm

m=0 dark
𝑟% y=0
m=-1 dark
𝜃
R=4m m=-2 dark

Constructive interference when: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

Destructive when: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
𝑑𝑦
𝑑 sin 𝜃 ≈ = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
𝑅
Choose m=1 for second dark fringe
3 𝜆𝑅 3 632.8 ⋅ 10&G m
𝑦= = (4 m) = 30.4 mm
2 𝑑 2 0.125 ⋅ 10&C m
 more info
Summary: Double-slit interference

NOT TO SCALE
𝜽 Horizontal scale >> vertical
𝜹 Rays r1 and r2 are nearly parallel
S1
𝜽𝟏 m=0
d 𝜽
r1 m=1
S2 𝜽𝟐 y
m=2
r2
R=distance to screen intensity

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
𝑚𝜆
𝑦= 𝑅
𝑑
 ex.8.5
Example:
Red light with wavelength 700 nm is passed through a two-slit apparatus. At
the same time, monochromatic visible light with another wavelength passes
through the same apparatus. As a result, most of the pattern that appears on
the screen is a mixture of two colors. However, the center of the third bright
fringe (m = 3) of the red light appears pure red, with none of the other color.

a) What are the possible wavelengths of the second type of visible light?
b) Do you need to know the slit spacing to answer this question? Why or
why not?

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
Solution
Ø The third bright fringe, there is a constructive interference
happing for red light, and destructive interference
happening for the other light:
!
∆𝑟 = 3 𝜆J+. = 3 700 𝑛𝑚 = 2100 𝑛𝑚 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆-%K+J
"

m 𝝀𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 (𝒏𝒎)
2100 𝑛𝑚
𝜆-%K+J = 0 4200
1
(𝑚 + ) 1 1400
2
Ø The the physically reasonable visible choices are: 2 840
3 600
𝜆 = 600 𝑛𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 − 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 467 𝑛𝑚 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 4 467
5 382
Ø We don’t need need to know the slit spacing to answer this
question because both the red and the other color see the same
path difference at that screen point.
 Example: AM radio antennas
Where along x does the signal fade due to destructive interference?

S2 f=300 kHz
2 sources are in phase

1 km 𝒓𝟐
S1 road
x
𝒓𝟏
x=0
Example: AM radio antennas
S2 f=300 kHz
2 sources are in phase

1 km 𝒓𝟐
S1 road
x
𝒓𝟏
x=0
Signal fades when: ∆𝒓 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒎 + 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝝀
1 3×/54 6/&
𝑟/ = 𝑥 ; 𝑟0 = 𝑥0 +1 ; 𝜆= = = 1 𝑘𝑚
2 3×/55 89
7
For m = 0: ∆𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 " + 1 − 𝑥 = 0.5 𝑘𝑚
"
𝑥 " + 1 = 0.5 + 𝑥 "
= 0.25 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 " 𝑥 = 0.75 𝑘𝑚

Extension: Show that there are no other X’s with destructive

interferences or convince yourself this is the only place the signal fades.
 Numerical Top Hat Question

Light from a HeNe laser (λ=632.8 nm) is incident on 2 slits

separated by 0.125 mm. Find the distance between the m=2 and
the m=-2 bright fringes on a screen 3.7 m away. (Answer in mm,
± 1 mm)

𝑚𝜆
𝑦= 𝑅
𝑑
Solution:
Light from a HeNe laser (λ=632.8 nm) is incident on 2 slits
separated by 0.125 mm. Find the distance between the m=2 and
the m=-2 bright fringes on a screen 3.7 m away. (Answer in mm,
± 1 mm)

For m=2:
,7 " ⋅N.C"=×!Q*+m
𝑦= 𝑅 = 3.7m = 37.5 mm
. Q.!"D×!Q*,m

From m=-2 to m=2:

Δ𝑦 = 2 ⋅ 37.5 mm = 75 mm
All fringes are equally spaced in the approximation that 𝜽 is
small.(Not true for large 𝜽).
 poll.8.9
Top Hat Question
If we used this set-up with light of a smaller wavelength, how could
we change it to give the same pattern on the screen?
a) Increase the slit width d or increase the distance to the screen R
b) Decrease d or increase R
c) Increase d or decrease R
d) Decrease d or decrease R

r2
y1
2
r1 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
d
a
1 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
R
𝑚𝜆
𝑦= 𝑅
𝑑
 poll.8.9
Top Hat Question
If we used this set-up with light of a smaller wavelength, how could
we change it to give the same pattern on the screen?
a) Increase the slit width d or increase the distance to the screen R
b) Decrease d or increase R
c) Increase d or decrease R
d) Decrease d or decrease R

r2
y1
2
r1 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
d
a
1 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆
R
𝑚𝜆
𝑦= 𝑅
𝑑