● Deep - away from the body surface or

LESSON 1:
more internal
Organizations of the Human Body Anatomical Regions - A structure may also be
described by identifying the specific region in
Anatomy - Body structure “tomy” (to cut) which it is located.
Physiology - Study of exactly how the body Two Major Regions of the Body
structure functions. ● The axial region - head, neck, and trunk
Anatomical Terms / Terminologies - Used to ● The appendicular region - arms and legs
identify body structures formally.
Gross Anatomy - Study of body structures that
you can see with the naked eye.
Anatomical Positions - When anatomists or
doctors refer to specific areas of the human
body, they do so relative to a standard position.
● Body is standing upright
● Head and eyes directed straight ahead
Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
● Upper limbs at the sides
● Four approximately equal regions
● Upper limbs slightly away from trunk
○ Right upper quadrant
● Palms facing forward
○ Right lower quadrant
● Thumbs pointing away from body
○ Left upper quadrant
● Lower limbs parallel
○ Left lower quadrant
● Feet flat on the ground and facing
● Nine separate regions by four planes
forward
○ Umbilical region - The centermost
Anatomical Terms of Direction
region, which includes the
● Location of a particular structure in the
umbilicus (navel, or “belly
body (e.g. the heart is in the chest.)
button”)
● Location of a structure relative to another
○ Epigastric region - Immediately
structure (e.g. the nose is above the
superior to the umbilical region;
mouth.)
overlies most of the stomach.
● Location of something within a structure
○ Pubic (hypogastric) region -
(e.g. blood flows inside blood vessels.)
Immediately inferior to the
Body Orientation and Direction
umbilical region; encompasses
● Superior - above
the pubic area.
● Inferior - below
○ Inguinal, or iliac regions - Lateral
● Anterior - front
to the hypogastric region and
● Posterior - back
overlying the superior parts of the
● Medial - towards
hip bones.
the midline
○ Lateral (lumbar) regions -
● Lateral - away from
Between the ribs and the flaring
the midline/median
portions of the hip bones; lateral
plane
to the umbilical region
● Cephalad - toward
○ Hypochondriac regions - Flanking
the head
the epigastric region laterally and
● Caudal - toward
overlying the lower ribs
the tail
● Ventral - belly side
● Dorsal - backside
● Proximal - nearer the trunk or attached
end
● Distal - farther from the trunk or point of
attachment
● Superficial - toward or at the body
surfaces
 POSITION DEFINITION

Supine Anterior (front)

surface facing up

Prone Anterior (front)

surface facing down

Rovsing’s Sign (Sign of Appendicitis) Anatomical Cavities

● Neils T. Rovsing ● Most of the body’s organs are located in
● 1862 - 1927, Danish Surgeon cavity spaces inside the body that hold
● Sometimes called indirect tenderness and protect organs.
● Positive when pressure over quadrant
causes pain in the right lower quadrant. ● Three general cavities
○ Dorsal Cavity found at the back of
the body
○ Thoracic Cavity found in the chest
○ Abdominopelvic Cavity found
below the thoracic cavity

ASSOCIATED LINING
CAVITY
ORGANS MEMBRANES

Anatomical Planes DORSAL

● In order to view the location of structures
from different origins the body may be Cranial Cavity Brain Meninges
cut along anatomical planes.
Vertebral Spinal Cord Meninges
PLANE DEFINITION Cavity

Sagittal Separates right from THORACIC

left. If the plane is
exactly down the Pleural Cavities Lungs Pleurae
midline of the body, it
Pericardial Heart Pericardium
is midsagittal.
Cavity
Transverse or Separates top from
ABDOMINOPELVIC
Horizontal bottom; commonly
called a cross
Abdominal Digestive Peritoneum
section.
Cavity Organs,
Frontal or Coronal Separates anterior Spleen
from posterior (front
Pelvic Cavity Urinary Peritoneum
from back)
Bladder,
Rectum,
Anatomical Positions
Reproductiv
● May also be used to describe body
e Organs
position, such as standard anatomical
position.
Body Cavities
● Terms that may be used to describe the
● Dorsal Body Cavity
position of either the entire body or
○ Cranial Cavity
individual parts.
○ Spinal Cavity
● Ventral Body Cavity
 ○ Thoracic Cavity - separated from of the pleural membrane in direct
the rest of the ventral cavity by contact with the lung
the muscular diaphragm and is ○ Parietal Pleura - part of the pleural
further subdivided into: membrane not in direct contact
■ Pleural Cavities - each of with the lung
which surrounds a lung, ● Pericardium - surrounds the heart in the
and the medial thoracic cavity
mediastinum ○ Visceral Pericardium - part of the
■ Mediastinum pleural membrane in direct
● Pericardial Cavity - contact with the heart
contained inside ○ Parietal Pericardium - part of the
the mediastinum pleural membrane in direct
which encloses the contact with the heart
heart, and it also
surrounds the
remaining thoracic
organs
○ Abdominopelvic Cavity - cavity
inferior to the diaphragm. No
further physical separation in this
cavity, but it may be further
● Peritoneum - serous membrane in
subdivided into
contained in the abdominopelvic cavity
■ Abdominal Cavity - houses
○ Parietal Peritoneum - lines the
the stomach, intestines,
anterior wall of the
liver, and other organs.
abdominopelvic cavity
■ Pelvic Cavity - partially
○ Visceral Peritoneum - covers
enclosed by the pelvis and
several, but not all of the organs in
contains the reproductive
the abdominal cavity
organs, bladder, and
rectum.

Serous Membrane
● Double-layered ● Retroperitoneal - kidneys and most of the
membranes that pancreas (between the parietal and the
contain fluid posterior abdominal wall)
between the two Mesentery
layers. ● Do not involve any fluid because they
● Pleura - surrounds are outside the serous membrane.
each of the lungs in ● Blood vessels and nerves, going out to
the thoracic cavity individual organs, can be found neatly
arranged in the mesenteries.
○ Visceral
Pleura - part
 ● Lateral rotation rotational movement
away from the midline.
○ Greater Omentum - looks like a
Supination and pronation are movements of the
fatty apron lying over all the
forearm.
abdominal viscera
● Supination rotation of the forearm and
○ Lesser Omentum - smaller and
hand that results in the palm facing
extends from the superior edge of
anteriorly.
the stomach to the liver
● Pronation rotation of the forearm that
results in the palm facing posteriorly

Anatomical Parts
Flexion and extension are movements that take
place within the sagittal plane and involve
anterior (ventral) or posterior (dorsal)
movements of the body or limbs.
● Flexion is a movement that decreases
the angle between two body parts.
● Extension a straightening movement that
increases the angle between body parts Dorsiflexion
and plantar
flexion are movements at
the ankle joint, which is a
hinge joint.
● Dorsiflexion flexion
at the ankle, so that
Abduction and adduction are motions of the the foot points more
limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal superiorly.
(medial–lateral) plane of movement. ● Plantar flexion the
● Adduction a movement towards the movement of the
midline. foot in a downward
● Abduction a movement away the motion away from the body.
midline.
NOTE: Circumduction is the
movement of the limb, hand,
or fingers in a circular
pattern, using the sequential
combination of flexion,
adduction, extension, and
abduction motions. e.g. Inversion and eversion are
Neck, shoulder, and hips. complex movements that
involve the intertarsal and
Rotation can occur within tarsometatarsal joints and NOT
the vertebral column, at a the ankle joint.
pivot joint, or at a ball-and- ● Inversion the
socket joint. movement of the sole
● Medial rotation towards the median
rotational movement towards the plane.
midline.
 ● Eversion the movement of sole away
Human Physiology
from the midline.
● Science of human physiology attempts
Protraction and retraction are anterior-posterior to explain the specific characteristics
movements of the scapula or mandible. and mechanisms of the human body
● Protraction (Scapula) occurs when the that make it a living being
shoulder is moved forward, as when ● Links the basic sciences with medicine
pushing against and integrates multiple functions of the
something or throwing cells, tissues, and organs into the
a ball. (Mandible) functions of the living human being
protraction occurs Cells are the Living Units of the Body
when the lower jaw is ● Basic living unit of the body is the cell.
pushed forward, to ● Each tissue or organ is an aggregate of
stick out the chin. many different cells held together by
● Retraction (Scapula) intercellular supporting structures
occurs when the ● Each type of cell is specially adapted to
scapula is being pulled perform one or a few particular functions
posteriorly and medially, toward the ● Microorganisms living in the body
vertebral column. (Mandible) outnumber human cells
protraction occurs when the lower jaw is ○ Microbiota - Communities of
pulled backward, pulling the lower jaw microorganisms that inhabit the
backward body, can-cause diseases, but
Depression and elevation are downward and most of the time they live in
upward movements of the scapula or harmony with their human hosts
mandible. and provide vital functions that
● Depression (Scapula) are essential for survival of their
downward movement hosts
(Mandible) downward Extracellular Fluid
movement that ● About 50% to 70% of the adult human
produces opening of body is fluid, mainly a water solution of
the mouth. ions and other substances;
● Elevation (Scapula) ○ Most of the fluid is inside the cells -
upward movement intracellular fluid
(Mandible) upward ○ About one-third is in the spaces
movement of the lower outside the cells - extracellular
jaw used to close the mouth or bite on fluid
something. ● In the extracellular fluid are the ions and
nutrients needed by the cells to maintain
Opposition and reposition life
involves touching the pad of ● Also called the internal environment of
any one of your fingers with the body, or the milieu intérieur - à term
the thumb of the same hand introduced by the great 19th-century
(opposition) while the latter French physiologist Claude Bernard
involves separating them (1813 - 1878)
(reposition). Differences in Extracellular and Intracellular
● Opposition movement Fluids
that brings the tip of ● Extracellular Fluid Contains:
the thumb in contact ○ Large amounts of sodium,
with the tip of a finger. chloride, and bicarbonate ions
● Reposition returning the thumb to its plus nutrients for the cells, such as
anatomical (natural) position next to the oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and
index finger. amino acids
● In a state of opposition. If he releases it,
then it will be in a state of reposition.
 ○ also contains carbon dioxide that ● Diffusion of fluid and dissolved
is being transported from the cells constituents through the capillary walls
to the lungs to be excreted, plus and interstitial spaces.
other cellular waste products that ● Gastrointestinal Tract
are being transported to the ○ Dissolved nutrients, including
kidneys to excretion carbohydrates, fatty acids, and
● Intracellular Fluid Contains: amino acids, are absorbed from
○ Large amounts of potassium, ingested food into the
magnesium, and phosphate ions extracellular fluid of the blood
instead of the sodium and ● Undigested material that enters the
chloride ions found in the gastrointestinal tract and some waste
extracellular fluid products of metabolism are eliminated in
○ Special mechanisms for the feces
transporting ions through the cell ● Liver and Other Organs That Perform
membranes maintain the ion Primarily Metabolic Functions
concentration differences ○ Among the many functions of the
between the extracellular and liver is detoxification - removal of
intracellular fluids ingested drugs and chemicals
Origin of Nutrients in the Extracellular Fluid ○ the liver secretes many of these
● Liver and Other wastes into the bile to be
Organs That Perform eventually eliminated in the feces
Primarily Metabolic ● Homeostasis - a state of body equilibrium
Functions or a stable internal environment of the
○ Liver changes body.
the chemical ● A steady internal environment in which
compositions the body works best.
of many ● If the body detects a change away from
substances to homeostasis, it will use either or two
more usable feedback mechanisms.
forms ● To easily remember the parts and
○ Other tissues functions of organs / organs systems, it
of the body- would be helpful to remember your past
fat cells, discussions
● Cells
gastrointestinal mucosa, kidneys, ○ Past and functions of a
and endocrine glands-help “generalized” cell
modify the absorbed substances ○ Cell membrane transport
or store them until they are mechanisms
needed
○ Liver also eliminates certain waste ● Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis
products produced in the body ○ Phases and distinguishing
and toxic substances that are characteristics of each
ingested
Homeostasis
● Maintenance of a Nearly Constant
Internal Environment
○ Walter Cannon (1871-1945),
American physiologist coined the
term homeostasis.
○ Normal body functions require
integrated actions of cells, tissues,
organs, and multiple nervous,
hormonal and local control
 systems that together contribute ● The process the body uses to reverse the
to homeostasis and good health direction of movement away from
○ Lungs - O2 to CO2 homeostasis.
○ Kidneys - Ion Concentration ● If the body detects a change outside its
○ GI - Providing Nutrients while normal homeostasis range (either too
eliminating waste high or too low) and it works to reach its
● Communication within the body is homeostasis range by reversing the
essential for homeostasis and is direction of movement
accomplished mainly by the nervous ○ a person has not eaten for a long
and endocrine system. time, so the blood sugar level has
○ Electrical signals fallen below normal
○ Bloodborne hormones ○ pancreas detects the decreased
● All homeostatic mechanisms involve blood sugar level and, in response
three components: to this stimulus, releases the
○ Receptor hormone glucagon
■ Type of sensor that ○ Glucagon then travels to the liver,
monitors and responds to telling it to release glucose (sugar)
changes in the into the bloodstream
environment called ○ raise in blood sugar level to
stimulus. homeostasis
■ Responds to stimulus by ● The blood sugar level became too low,
sending information (input) and the body brought the level back up
to the control center. to normal.
■ Information flows from the ● Positive Feedback - amplifies a change,
receptor to the control pushing the system further away from its
center along the afferent set point.
pathway. ● The process the body uses to increase
○ Control Center the movement away from homeostasis.
■ Determines the level at ● If the body detects a change and works
which a variable is to be to make the levels move even farther
maintained. away from homeostasis
■ Analyzes information it ○ Childbirth: Contractions get
receives and determines stronger and more frequent until
appropriate response or the baby is born.
course of action. ○ Blood clotting: The initial
○ Effector activation of clotting factors
■ Provides the means for the triggers a cascade of further
control center’s response activation, quickly sealing off a
(output) to the stimulus. wound.
■ Information flows from the ○ A woman is at the end of her
control center to the pregnancy (In homeostasis, the
effector through the uterus does not contract during
efferent pathway. pregnancy)
Feedback Mechanisms - The terms negative ○ As the fetus reaches full term, its
and positive in this context are not value head pushes on the neck of the
judgement indicating good or bad. They simply uterus (the cervix). The increased
describe the direction of movement. pressure on the cervix causes the
● Negative Feedback - works to cervix to release chemicals
counteract a change, bringing a system (prostaglandins) that cause the
back to its set point (the ideal range). uterus to contract, moving away
● The process the body uses to reverse the from homeostasis.
direction of movement away from
homeostasis.
 ○ The contractions cause the fetal initially helps return excretion to normal
head to push harder on the cervix, → a balance between intake and renal
and this increases the pressure. excretion can be maintained
○ The cervix responds by making ● Over long periods of time, the high blood
more prostaglandins, leading to pressure can damage various organs,
more contractions and further including the kidneys, causing even
increasing the fetal head's greater increases in blood pressure and
pressure on the cervix. more renal damage.
○ More and more contractions are
created until the baby is finally
born ("runaway-train effect")
Example
● When you’re hot
○ Your body sweats. The sweat
evaporates, cooling your skin.
Blood vessels near the surface of
your skin dilate, allowing more
blood to flow close to the surface,
which also helps to release heat.
● When you’re cold
○ You shiver. Shivering is rapid
muscle contractions, which
generate heat. Blood vessels near
the surface of your skin constrict,
reducing blood flow to the
surface and conserving heat.
Homeostatic Compensations in Diseases
● Disease - often considered to be a state
of disrupted ion homeostasis
● Even in the presence of disease,
homeostatic mechanisms continue to
operate and maintain vital functions
through multiple compensations
● In some cases, these compensations
may lead to major deviations of the
body's functions from the normal range
making it difficult to distinguish the
primary cause of the disease from the
compensatory responses
Homeostatic Compensations in Diseases
● Usually occur after injury, disease, or
major environmental challenges to the
body may represent trade-offs that are
necessary to maintain vital body
functions but, in the long term, contribute
to additional abnormalities of body
function
● Pathophysiology
○ Seeks to explain how the various
physiological processes are
altered in diseases or injury
● Kidneys' ability to excrete salt and water
→ may lead to high blood pressure →
BODY FUNCTIONS
Regulation of Body Functions bacteria, viruses, parasites, and
● Nervous System fungi
○ Motor output portion where Regulation of Body Functions
appropriate signals are then ● Hormone Systems
transmitted through the of the ○ hormones provide a regulatory
nervous system to carry out one's system that complements the
desires nervous system
○ Autonomic System - Operates at ■ nervous system - controls
a subconscious level and controls many muscular and
many functions of internal organs, secretory activities of the
including the level of pumping body
activity by the heart, movements ■ hormonal system -
of the gastrointestinal tract, and regulates many metabolic
secretion by many of the body's functions.
glands ● The nervous and hormonal systems
○ Composed of three major parts- normally work together in a coordinated
the sensory input portion, the manner to control essentially all the
central nervous system (or organ systems of the body
integrative portion), and the ● endocrine glands, organs and tissues
motor output portion that secrete chemical substances called
○ Sensory receptors detect the hormones
state of the body and its ○ transported in the extracellular
surroundings. fluid to other parts of the body to
○ Central Nervous System is help regulate cellular function
composed of the brain and spinal ■ thyroid hormone -
cord - stores information, increases the rates of most
generates thoughts, creates chemical reactions in all
ambition, and determines cells
reactions that the body performs ■ insulin - controls glucose
in response to the sensations metabolism
● Kidneys ■ adrenocortical hormones -
○ Removes most of the other control sodium and
substances from the plasma potassium ions and protein
besides carbon dioxide that are metabolism
not needed by cells. These ■ parathyroid hormone -
substances include different end controls bone calcium and
products of cellular metabolism, phosphate
such as urea and uric acid Control Systems of the Body
○ Excesses of ions and water from ● Many other control systems operate
the food that accumulate in the within the organs to regulate functions of
extracellular fluid the individual parts of the organs;
● Musculoskeletal System ● others operate throughout the entire
○ Body movement to obtain the body to control the interrelationships
foods required for nutrition. between the organs
○ Provides motility for protection ○ respiratory system + nervous
against adverse surroundings system - regulates the
Protection of the Body concentration of carbon dioxide
● Immune System in the extracellular fluid.
○ Includes white blood cells, tissue ○ liver and pancreas - control
cells derived from white blood glucose concentration in the
cells, the thymus, lymph nodes, extracellular fluid,
and lymph vessels that protect ○ Kidneys - regulate concentrations
the body from pathogens such as of hydrogen, sodium, potassium,
 phosphate, and other ions in the ribosomes, and Golgi complexes are
extracellular fluid examples of organelles.
Reproduction ● cellular level - organelles work together
● Although reproduction is sometimes not to perform specific functions for a cell
considered a homeostatic function, it (the basic unit of life).
helps maintain homeostasis by ● chemical level — the simplest level-deals
generating new beings to take the place with the body's chemistry and involves
of those that are dying individual atoms and molecules
● Essentially all body structures are ○ Matter: anything that takes up
organized to help maintain the space and has mass
automaticity and continuity of life ○ Element: purest form of matter;
Integumentary System has a unique set of chemical
● Skin and its various appendages properties
(including the hair, nails, glands, and
other structures)
● cover, cushion, and protect the deeper Atoms and Isotopes
tissues and organs of the body ● atom - smallest piece of an element still
● generally provide a boundary between exhibiting the element's
the body's internal environment and ○ unique set of chemical properties
provides a sensory interface between ○ composed of: protons (+) and
the body and the external environment electrons or neutrons (0)
● temperature regulation and excretion of Major Elements in the Human Body
wastes The human body is composed of several key
elements that contribute to its structure and
function. The most abundant elements by
Organ Systems weight are:
1. Integumentary - skin ● Oxygen (O) – 65.00%: Essential for
2. Skeletal - bones respiration and water composition in the
3. Muscular - muscle body.
4. Nervous - nerve, brain ● Carbon (C) – 18.00%: The backbone of
5. Endocrine - hormone organic molecules like carbohydrates,
6. Cardiovascular - heart proteins, and DNA.
7. Lymphatic/Immune - immune ● Hydrogen (H) – 10.00%: Found in water
8. Respiratory - lungs and many biological molecules, playing
9. Digestive - stomach, intestine a key role in energy transfer.
10. Urinary - kidney ● Nitrogen (N) – 3.00%: A major
11. Reproductive - male & female component of proteins and nucleic
Organization of the human body: acids (DNA and RNA).
● Atoms ● Calcium (Ca) – 1.50%: Important for
● Molecules bone structure, muscle contractions,
● Organelles and nerve function.
● Cells ● Phosphorus (P) – 1.00%: Found in bones,
● Tissues teeth, and ATP (energy-carrying
● Organs molecules).
● Organ systems ● Sulfur (S) – 0.25%: Present in some amino
● Organism acids and proteins, aiding in metabolism.
Levels of Organization of the Human Body ● Potassium (K) – 0.20%: Helps regulate
● chemical level — the simplest level-deals nerve signals and muscle contractions.
with the body's chemistry and involves Molecules - two or more atoms bonded
individual atoms and molecules together
● organelle level - molecules work ● Bonding
together as organelles to perform ○ Covalent: very strong bond; often
specific functions. Mitochondria, formed by carbon atoms
 ○ occurs when two or more atoms ○ Glucose (found in blood)
share electrons to fill their outer ○ Glycogen (stored in
shells muscles and the liver)
○ Ionic: two or more atoms bind to ● Functions:
form a molecule by giving up or ○ Glucose: Main energy
receiving electrons from each source for cells
other to fill their outer shells ○ Glycogen: Stored energy
Electrolytes - ions in solution; capable of (glucose is converted to
conducting electricity glycogen for later use)
Water - chemically separates ionically bonded 2. Lipids
molecules into individual ions called electrolytes ● Elements: C, H, O (not in a 1:2:1
● works as a lubricant in tears and the fluid ratio)
of joints ● Building Blocks: Fatty acids and
● aids in chemical reactions glycerol
● used to transport nutrients and wastes in ● Examples:
blood plasma ○ Fats (stored in adipose
● temperature regulation tissue)
○ as a high heat capacity to ○ Steroids (hormones found
maintain body temperature can in blood)
be used to cool the body when it ● Phospholipids (make up cell
evaporates from the surface as membranes)
sweat ● Functions:
Solutions - Every solution is composed of two ○ Fats: Stored energy
basic parts: one or more solutes and a solvent ○ Steroids: Regulate body
● Concentration: amount of solute present functions
in a solution relative to the amount of ○ Phospholipids: Provide
solvent structure to cells and
● Tonicity: term used when comparing control what enters and
solutions exits
○ hypertonic, isotonic, or hypotonic 3. Proteins
Acids, Bases, and pH ● Elements: C, H, O, N
● Acid: molecule that releases a hydrogen ● Building Blocks: Amino acids (20
ion (H+) when added to water types)
● Base: a molecule that will accept the ● Examples & Functions:
hydrogen ion, often by releasing a ○ Keratin & Collagen (skin) →
hydroxide ion (OH-) when added to Provide strength
water ○ Hormones (blood) →
● pH (potential of hydrogen): scale Regulate body functions
measuring the strength of acids and ○ Transport Proteins (blood)
bases → Carry molecules
Organic molecules ○ Enzymes (everywhere) →
● 4 types Speed up chemical
○ Carbohydrates reactions
○ Lipids ○ Antibodies (blood) →
○ Proteins Defend against infections
○ Nucleic Acids ○ Muscle Proteins (muscles)
○ Organic Molecules in the Human → Enable muscle
Body contraction
1. Carbohydrates ○ Binding & Receptor
● Elements: C, H, O (in a 1:2:1 ratio) Proteins (cell membranes)
● Building Blocks: Monosaccharides → Help with cell
(simple sugars) communication
● Examples: 4. Nucleic Acids
 ● Elements: C, H, O, N, P ● Nucleic Acids: organic molecules are
● Building Blocks: Nucleotides composed of carbon, hydrogen,
● Examples & Functions: ○ oxygen, nitrogen, and
○ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic phosphorus.
Acid) (nucleus of a cell) → ○ building blocks for nucleic acids
Stores genetic information are nucleotides strung together in
○ RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) a twisted
(various locations in a cell) ■ double strand (double
→ Processes genetic helix), as in DNA
instructions for protein ● nucleotides: GCAT
synthesis ■ single strand as in RNA
Organic Molecules ● uracil (U) is
● Carbohydrates: organic molecules substituted for
contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and thymine
oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1 Chemical Reactions: event when some
○ Monosaccharides (simple molecules react with others
sugars)-the simplest form of a ● In any reaction, you start with reactants
carbohydrate: building blocks of and end with products
carbohydrate Metabolism: sum total of all the chemical
○ Disaccharide: when two reactions that take place in the human body
monosaccharides are combined
to form a single molecule Reactants → Products or Products + Reactants
○ Polysaccharide: when many read the arrow as "yield,"
monosaccharides together are and know that it always points to the products
stringed like beads in a necklace
to form a single molecule Cellular Respiration: one of the most important
● Lipids: organic molecules containing chemical reactions in the body
atoms of the same elements as those in C6H1206 + 02 → CO2 + H20
Glucose + Oxygen yields Carbon dioxide and Water
carbohydrates (carbon, hydrogen, and
reactant yields product
oxygen) but not in the 1:2:1 ratio
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate): energy released
○ fatty acids and glycerol: building
from the glucose molecule in cellular respiration
blocks of lipids
must be converted to a usable form
○ three types
● cells cannot use the energy contained in
■ Fats
the chemical bonds of a glucose
■ Steroids
molecule until this energy has been
■ Phospholipids
released through cellular respiration and
● Proteins: organic molecules contain
converted to a usable form
nitrogen in addition to carbon,
Energy + ADP + P → ATP
hydrogen, and oxygen Energy + Adenosine diphosphate + Phosphate →
○ building blocks for proteins are the Adenosine triphosphate
20 different amino acids
○ proteins function in many ways
according to their shape
○ shape is determined by the order
of the protein's amino acids.
○ Parts of amino acids may be
attracted to segments of other
amino acids.
○ This attraction causes the amino
acid chain to bend, fold, and
pleat, which results in a very
unique shape
 ■ white blood cells that
phagocytize (eat and
destroy) bacteria do not
need the same relative
amounts of organelles
■ white blood cells need many
lysosomes containing
digestive enzymes to destroy
the bacteria

Organelle Description & Location Function

Cell Thin phospholipid Defines cell shape,

Membrane bilayer found in all cells separates inside
(Plasma from outside,
Membrane) controls what
enters and exits

Cilia Hair-like extensions of Move in a wavelike

the membrane, found motion to push
Levels of Organization of the Human Body in cells that move substances like dust
materials (e.g., and mucus away
● organelle level - molecules work together as
trachea lining)
organelles to perform specific functions.
Mitochondria, ribosomes, and Golgi Microvilli Tiny extensions of the Increase surface
complexes are examples of organelles. membrane, found in area to help absorb
○ molecules of different types come cells needing more nutrients
surface area (e.g.,
together to form organelles intestines)
○ organelle has its own function, and
together they carry out the necessary Nucleus Membrane-enclosed, Stores and protects
cellular functions found in all cells DNA (genetic
except red blood cells instructions)
○ not all cells have the same organelles
○ the type and number of organelles in Mitochondria Rod-shaped, has a Produces ATP
each cell depend upon the cell's membrane, found in (energy) through
function cells needing lots of cellular respiration
○ organelles are suspended within the energy
cell in a fluid called cytoplasm
Ribosomes Made of two subunits, Assemble amino
■ a solution containing found in cells that acids to make
electrolytes, nutrients, wastes, produce proteins proteins
and gases (such as oxygen
and carbon dioxide) as the Endoplasmic Network of Rough ER: Has
Reticulum (ER) membranes ribosomes, makes
solutes and water as the connected to the proteins. Smooth
solvent nucleus ER: No ribosomes,
■ cytoskeleton of protein fibers makes lipids
organizes the organelles
Golgi Stack of membrane Modifies, sorts, and
within the cytoplasm
Complex folds near the ER, packages proteins
○ Example: Cells of the pancreas found in cells making and lipids
produce the protein insulin for export proteins and lipids
out of the cell.
■ Well-developed, rough Secretory Small membrane Transport materials
Vesicles bubbles from the from the Golgi to
endoplasmic reticulum (site of Golgi, found in protein- the cell membrane
protein production) exporting cells for release
■ Many ribosomes (to assemble
proteins) Lysosomes Membrane-bound Store and release
sacs with enzymes, enzymes to break
■ Many Golgi complexes (to
found in white blood down bacteria,
inspect and modify proteins cells and cells that waste, or
produced) destroy materials damaged cell parts
■ Many secretory vesicles (to
serve as packages for export Cell Membrane
out of the cell) ● cell membrane =/= cell wall
 ○ designed to define the cell by ● Filtration: moves materials across a cell
separating the extra cellular fluid membrane using force but no energy
(fluid outside the cell) from the ● Simple Diffusion: All atoms and molecules
intracellular fluid (fluid inside the cell). maintain a constant state of motion.
○ Phospholipids - primary component ○ Temperature
of a cell membrane ○ Molecular Weight
■ Hydrophilic (water-loving) ○ Concentration Gradient
glycerol head and two fatty ○ Membrane Surface Area
acid hydrophobic (water- ● Movement of molecules across the cell
fearing) chains membrane without using energy.
■ Phospholipids arrange ● Molecules move from high concentration to
themselves in a bilayer low concentration (like rolling downhill).
● may also contain a variety of embedded ● Facilitated Diffusion: Used for molecules that
proteins cannot pass through the membrane on their
● some of these proteins serve as receptors own (e.g., glucose).
○ Their unique shape on the ○ Requires a channel protein to help
extracellular side of the cell move these molecules across.
membrane can make them sensitive ○ Example: Glucose Transport
to specific chemicals, such as ○ Glucose molecules cannot pass
hormones through the membrane directly, so
● Other proteins serve as channels to allow they use:
materials (like those unable to travel through ■ Receptor – Recognizes the
the phospholipid bilayer) to enter the cell glucose molecule.
● other proteins have a carbohydrate ■ Channel Protein – Acts like a
(glycoproteins) on their extracellular surface tunnel to allow glucose to
- identifying tag - foreign or self pass through.
● Membrane Transport: movement of ions and ■ Glucose Molecule – Moves
molecules across the cell membrane through the channel into the
○ Passive - requiring no energy cell.
○ Active - requiring energy ● Osmosis: Some molecules cannot move
● materials can also be moved across the cell across the cell membrane to equalize their
membrane in bulk concentration by any passive means.
a. Passive Transport ○ when the solutes cannot move across
i. Filtration the membrane, water will move
ii. Simple Diffusion across the cell membrane to equalize
1. Temperature the concentration of both solutions
2. Molecular Weight ○ Water moves to the more
3. Concentration concentrated solution to dilute it.
Gradient
4. Membrane Surface
Area
iii. Facilitated Diffusion
iv. Osmosis Type of Solution What Happens? Effect on the Cell
b. Active Transport
i. Sodium-Potassium Pump Hypertonic Solution Water moves Cell shrinks
c. Bulk Transport (More solutes outside out of the cell (dehydration)
the cell)
i. Endocytosis
ii. Exocytosis Hypotonic Solution Water moves Cell swells (may
(Fewer solutes outside into the cell burst in extreme
the cell) cases)

Isotonic Solution (Equal Water moves in Cell stays the

solutes inside and and out equally same size
Passive Transport outside)
● can move materials across the cell
membrane in either direction-into or out of Active Transport
the cell ● moves materials across the cell membrane
● no energy is required for this type of from areas of low concentration to areas of
movement to happen high concentration
 ● involves moving materials up a 2. The vesicle moves to the cell membrane and
concentration gradient against the natural merges with it.
trend of diffusion 3. Contents of the vesicle are expelled outside
● requires the cell's usable form of energy the cell.
contained in ATP molecules Protein Synthesis - making proteins; another major
● sodium-potassium pump: series of channels function for many different cells
on the cell membrane regulates the ● the production process from cell to cell is the
concentration of sodium and potassium ions same
on both sides of the cell membrane ● the directions and the assembly of the amino
Bulk Transport acid building blocks can result in very
● Moves large amounts of materials across the different proteins
cell membrane at once (not just individual ● ribosome assembles the amino acid building
molecules). blocks in the correct order to produce a
● Requires energy (ATP) because it involves the functioning protein
movement of the membrane itself. ● two-stage process:
● Two main types based on direction: ○ Transcription
○ Translation
Type Direction What It Does Example Transcription
● must happen first, occuring in the nucleus
Endocytosis Into the cell The cell White ● double-stranded DNA is opened at the
membrane wraps blood cells section containing the directions for making
around and engulf
the protein
engulfs large bacteria.
particles or liquids. ● free nucleotides bind to one side of the open
DNA (C's bind to G's and U's bind to A's) to
Exocytosis Out of the The cell packages Cells form a single-stranded messenger RNA
cell substances in release (mRNA) molecule
vesicles and hormones
releases them or waste. ● Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) in RNA
outside. language
● the mRNA, carrying the DNA directions in a
Endocytosis usable form, leaves the nucleus and travels
● materials into the cell in bulk to the ribosome
● eukocyte engulfs (phagocytized) a foreign Translation
particle, pinches the membrane off, creating ● happens at the ribosome - must use the
a membrane-enclosed vesicle (packet) of directions contained in the mRNA to
the bacterium inside the cell assemble amino acids into a functioning
● A lysosome merge its membrane with the protein
membrane enclosing the bacterium - digests ● the specific amino acids used and their
the sequence are vital to the protein's eventual
● bacterium, making it harmless shape
Exocytosis ● these amino acids must be transported to
● moves materials out of the cell in bulk the ribosome on the rough ER for assembly
● the membrane-enclosed packet of the Mistakes in Protein Synthesis
digested bacterium moves to the inside of ● mistakes may be catastrophic or of little
the cell membrane, merges with it, and then consequence
opens to the outside, expelling its contents ● four possible nucleotides can be combined
(the digested bacterium in bulk to form the three-nucleotide anticodon on a
Endocytosis (Bringing Materials Into the Cell) tRNA molecule
1. White blood cell approaches a foreign ● some amino acids may be transported by
particle. more than one tRNA.
2. The cell engulfs the particle, forming a vesicle ● if a mistake in transcription results in a faulty
around it. mRNA molecule, either of two outcomes
3. A lysosome merges with the vesicle and may result
releases enzymes. 1. The ribosome reading the faulty
4. Enzymes digest the foreign particle, breaking mRNA calls for a tRNA that brings an
it down. amino acid that is wrong
Exocytosis (Expelling Materials from the Cell) a. different protein is made, with
1. After digestion, waste or residue is stored in a possible drastic
vesicle. consequences
 2. The ribosome reading the faulty ● Skin Cancer
mRNA calls for a tRNA that just ○ Skin cancer is the most common
happens to be a tRNA that brings the cancer, and it is associated with sun
correct amino acid. exposure.
a. the correct protein is made ○ Basal cell carcinoma is the most
and there are no common skin cancer, and it tends not
consequences to metastasize.
Cell division is important for growth, repair, and ○ Squamous cell carcinoma can
reproduction. Some key applications include: metastasize.
1. Mutation – Changes in DNA during cell ○ Malignant melanoma is the rarest
division can lead to genetic disorders, form of skin cancer, but it is also the
cancer, or beneficial traits in evolution. most deadly because it metastasizes
2. Aging – Over time, cells divide less efficiently, easily.
leading to aging and slower healing. ● Skin Infections
○ Skin can be infected by a type of
How Cell Division Works bacteria, a virus, or a fungus.
● A parent cell with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) ○ Cellulitis is an example of a bacterial
undergoes replication (copying its DNA). skin infection.
● It divides into two daughter cells, each with ○ Warts are an example of a viral skin
46 chromosomes (23 pairs). infection.
Physiology of the Integumentary System ○ Tinea infections of the skin are caused
● Functions: The functions of the by a fungus.
integumentary system include protection Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
from pathogens and UV light, vitamin D ● All parts of the integumentary system are
production, temperature regulation, water affected by aging.
retention, sensation, and nonverbal ● The epidermis becomes drier, with uneven
communication. tanning and age spots.
Injuries to the Skin ● The dermis thins and produces less collagen
● Regeneration versus Fibrosis and elastic fibers; this, along with gravity,
○ Skin can heal by regeneration or causes sagging and wrinkling of the skin.
fibrosis. ● The hypodermis thins, providing less
○ In regeneration, normal function cushioning and less insulation.
returns. ● Nails become thinner and more susceptible
○ In fibrosis, normal functioning tissue is to fracture.
replaced by scar tissue. ● Hair thins and turns gray.
● Inflammation
○ Inflammation is the body's response
to a foreign invader.
○ Signs of inflammation are redness,
heat, swelling, and pain.
● Burns
○ Burns can be classified by degree.
■ First-degree burns involve
only the epidermis. Symptoms
are redness, pain, and
swelling.
■ Second-degree burns involve
the epidermis and dermis.
Symptoms include redness,
pain, swelling, and blisters.
■ Third-degree burns involve
the epidermis, dermis, and
hypodermis. Symptoms
include charring and no pain
at the burn site.
○ The rule of nines is used to determine
the extent of a burn.
Integumentary System Disorders
ADDITIONAL
Levels of Organization of the Human Body Cilia Hair-like extensions of Move in a wavelike
● organelle level - molecules work together as the membrane, found motion to push
organelles to perform specific functions. in cells that move substances like dust
Mitochondria, ribosomes, and Golgi materials (e.g., and mucus away
trachea lining)
complexes are examples of organelles.
○ molecules of different types come Microvilli Tiny extensions of the Increase surface
together to form organelles membrane, found in area to help absorb
○ organelle has its own function, and cells needing more nutrients
surface area (e.g.,
together they carry out the necessary
intestines)
cellular functions
○ not all cells have the same organelles Nucleus Membrane-enclosed, Stores and protects
○ the type and number of organelles in found in all cells DNA (genetic
each cell depend upon the cell's except red blood cells instructions)
function
Mitochondria Rod-shaped, has a Produces ATP
○ organelles are suspended within the membrane, found in (energy) through
cell in a fluid called cytoplasm cells needing lots of cellular respiration
■ a solution containing energy
electrolytes, nutrients, wastes,
Ribosomes Made of two subunits, Assemble amino
and gases (such as oxygen found in cells that acids to make
and carbon dioxide) as the produce proteins proteins
solutes and water as the
solvent Endoplasmic Network of Rough ER: Has
Reticulum (ER) membranes ribosomes, makes
■ cytoskeleton of protein fibers connected to the proteins. Smooth
organizes the organelles nucleus ER: No ribosomes,
within the cytoplasm makes lipids
○ Example: Cells of the pancreas
produce the protein insulin for export Golgi Stack of membrane Modifies, sorts, and
Complex folds near the ER, packages proteins
out of the cell. found in cells making and lipids
■ Well-developed, rough proteins and lipids
endoplasmic reticulum (site of
protein production) Secretory Small membrane Transport materials
Vesicles bubbles from the from the Golgi to
■ Many ribosomes (to assemble Golgi, found in protein- the cell membrane
proteins) exporting cells for release
■ Many Golgi complexes (to
inspect and modify proteins Lysosomes Membrane-bound Store and release
produced) sacs with enzymes, enzymes to break
found in white blood down bacteria,
■ Many secretory vesicles (to cells and cells that waste, or
serve as packages for export destroy materials damaged cell parts
out of the cell)
■ white blood cells that Cell Membrane
phagocytize (eat and ● cell membrane =/= cell wall
destroy) bacteria do not ○ designed to define the cell by
need the same relative separating the extra cellular fluid
amounts of organelles (fluid outside the cell) from the
■ white blood cells need many intracellular fluid (fluid inside the cell).
lysosomes containing ○ Phospholipids - primary component
digestive enzymes to destroy of a cell membrane
the bacteria ■ Hydrophilic (water-loving)
glycerol head and two fatty
Organelle Description & Location Function acid hydrophobic (water-
fearing) chains
Cell Thin phospholipid Defines cell shape,
■ Phospholipids arrange
Membrane bilayer found in all cells separates inside themselves in a bilayer
(Plasma from outside, ● may also contain a variety of embedded
Membrane) controls what proteins
enters and exits
● some of these proteins serve as receptors
○ Their unique shape on the
extracellular side of the cell
 membrane can make them sensitive ○ Example: Glucose Transport
to specific chemicals, such as ○ Glucose molecules cannot pass
hormones through the membrane directly, so
● Other proteins serve as channels to allow they use:
materials (like those unable to travel through ■ Receptor – Recognizes the
the phospholipid bilayer) to enter the cell glucose molecule.
● other proteins have a carbohydrate ■ Channel Protein – Acts like a
(glycoproteins) on their extracellular surface tunnel to allow glucose to
- identifying tag - foreign or self pass through.
● Membrane Transport: movement of ions and ■ Glucose Molecule – Moves
molecules across the cell membrane through the channel into the
○ Passive - requiring no energy cell.
○ Active - requiring energy ● Osmosis: Some molecules cannot move
● materials can also be moved across the cell across the cell membrane to equalize their
membrane in bulk concentration by any passive means.
a. Passive Transport ○ when the solutes cannot move across
i. Filtration the membrane, water will move
ii. Simple Diffusion across the cell membrane to equalize
1. Temperature the concentration of both solutions
2. Molecular Weight ○ Water moves to the more
3. Concentration concentrated solution to dilute it.
Gradient
4. Membrane Surface
Area
iii. Facilitated Diffusion
iv. Osmosis Type of Solution What Happens? Effect on the Cell
b. Active Transport
i. Sodium-Potassium Pump Hypertonic Solution Water moves Cell shrinks
c. Bulk Transport (More solutes outside out of the cell (dehydration)
the cell)
i. Endocytosis
ii. Exocytosis Hypotonic Solution Water moves Cell swells (may
(Fewer solutes outside into the cell burst in extreme
the cell) cases)

Isotonic Solution (Equal Water moves in Cell stays the

solutes inside and and out equally same size
Passive Transport outside)
● can move materials across the cell
membrane in either direction-into or out of Active Transport
the cell ● moves materials across the cell membrane
● no energy is required for this type of from areas of low concentration to areas of
movement to happen high concentration
● Filtration: moves materials across a cell ● involves moving materials up a
membrane using force but no energy concentration gradient against the natural
● Simple Diffusion: All atoms and molecules trend of diffusion
maintain a constant state of motion. ● requires the cell's usable form of energy
○ Temperature contained in ATP molecules
○ Molecular Weight ● sodium-potassium pump: series of channels
○ Concentration Gradient on the cell membrane regulates the
○ Membrane Surface Area concentration of sodium and potassium ions
● Movement of molecules across the cell on both sides of the cell membrane
membrane without using energy. Bulk Transport
● Molecules move from high concentration to ● Moves large amounts of materials across the
low concentration (like rolling downhill). cell membrane at once (not just individual
● Facilitated Diffusion: Used for molecules that molecules).
cannot pass through the membrane on their ● Requires energy (ATP) because it involves the
own (e.g., glucose). movement of the membrane itself.
○ Requires a channel protein to help ● Two main types based on direction:
move these molecules across.
 Type Direction What It Does Example Transcription
● must happen first, occuring in the nucleus
Endocytosis Into the cell The cell White ● double-stranded DNA is opened at the
membrane wraps blood cells section containing the directions for making
around and engulf
the protein
engulfs large bacteria.
particles or liquids. ● free nucleotides bind to one side of the open
DNA (C's bind to G's and U's bind to A's) to
Exocytosis Out of the The cell packages Cells form a single-stranded messenger RNA
cell substances in release (mRNA) molecule
vesicles and hormones
releases them or waste. ● Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) in RNA
outside. language
● the mRNA, carrying the DNA directions in a
Endocytosis usable form, leaves the nucleus and travels
● materials into the cell in bulk to the ribosome
● eukocyte engulfs (phagocytized) a foreign Translation
particle, pinches the membrane off, creating ● happens at the ribosome - must use the
a membrane-enclosed vesicle (packet) of directions contained in the mRNA to
the bacterium inside the cell assemble amino acids into a functioning
● A lysosome merge its membrane with the protein
membrane enclosing the bacterium - digests ● the specific amino acids used and their
the sequence are vital to the protein's eventual
● bacterium, making it harmless shape
Exocytosis ● these amino acids must be transported to
● moves materials out of the cell in bulk the ribosome on the rough ER for assembly
● the membrane-enclosed packet of the Mistakes in Protein Synthesis
digested bacterium moves to the inside of ● mistakes may be catastrophic or of little
the cell membrane, merges with it, and then consequence
opens to the outside, expelling its contents ● four possible nucleotides can be combined
(the digested bacterium in bulk to form the three-nucleotide anticodon on a
Endocytosis (Bringing Materials Into the Cell) tRNA molecule
1. White blood cell approaches a foreign ● some amino acids may be transported by
particle. more than one tRNA.
2. The cell engulfs the particle, forming a vesicle ● if a mistake in transcription results in a faulty
around it. mRNA molecule, either of two outcomes
3. A lysosome merges with the vesicle and may result
releases enzymes. 1. The ribosome reading the faulty
4. Enzymes digest the foreign particle, breaking mRNA calls for a tRNA that brings an
it down. amino acid that is wrong
Exocytosis (Expelling Materials from the Cell) a. different protein is made, with
1. After digestion, waste or residue is stored in a possible drastic
vesicle. consequences
2. The vesicle moves to the cell membrane and 2. The ribosome reading the faulty
merges with it. mRNA calls for a tRNA that just
3. Contents of the vesicle are expelled outside happens to be a tRNA that brings the
the cell. correct amino acid.
Protein Synthesis - making proteins; another major a. the correct protein is made
function for many different cells and there are no
● the production process from cell to cell is the consequences
same Cell division is important for growth, repair, and
● the directions and the assembly of the amino reproduction. Some key applications include:
acid building blocks can result in very 1. Mutation – Changes in DNA during cell
different proteins division can lead to genetic disorders,
● ribosome assembles the amino acid building cancer, or beneficial traits in evolution.
blocks in the correct order to produce a 2. Aging – Over time, cells divide less efficiently,
functioning protein leading to aging and slower healing.
● two-stage process:
○ Transcription How Cell Division Works
○ Translation
 ● A parent cell with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) ○ Cellulitis is an example of a bacterial
undergoes replication (copying its DNA). skin infection.
● It divides into two daughter cells, each with ○ Warts are an example of a viral skin
46 chromosomes (23 pairs). infection.
Physiology of the Integumentary System ○ Tinea infections of the skin are caused
● Functions: The functions of the by a fungus.
integumentary system include protection Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
from pathogens and UV light, vitamin D ● All parts of the integumentary system are
production, temperature regulation, water affected by aging.
retention, sensation, and nonverbal ● The epidermis becomes drier, with uneven
communication. tanning and age spots.
Injuries to the Skin ● The dermis thins and produces less collagen
● Regeneration versus Fibrosis and elastic fibers; this, along with gravity,
○ Skin can heal by regeneration or causes sagging and wrinkling of the skin.
fibrosis. ● The hypodermis thins, providing less
○ In regeneration, normal function cushioning and less insulation.
returns. ● Nails become thinner and more susceptible
○ In fibrosis, normal functioning tissue is to fracture.
replaced by scar tissue. ● Hair thins and turns gray.
● Inflammation
○ Inflammation is the body's response
to a foreign invader.
○ Signs of inflammation are redness,
heat, swelling, and pain.
● Burns
○ Burns can be classified by degree.
■ First-degree burns involve
only the epidermis. Symptoms
are redness, pain, and
swelling.
■ Second-degree burns involve
the epidermis and dermis.
Symptoms include redness,
pain, swelling, and blisters.
■ Third-degree burns involve
the epidermis, dermis, and
hypodermis. Symptoms
include charring and no pain
at the burn site.
○ The rule of nines is used to determine
the extent of a burn.
Integumentary System Disorders
● Skin Cancer
○ Skin cancer is the most common
cancer, and it is associated with sun
exposure.
○ Basal cell carcinoma is the most
common skin cancer, and it tends not
to metastasize.
○ Squamous cell carcinoma can
metastasize.
○ Malignant melanoma is the rarest
form of skin cancer, but it is also the
most deadly because it metastasizes
easily.
● Skin Infections
○ Skin can be infected by a type of
bacteria, a virus, or a fungus.
LESSON 2 (DONE)
 ○ Cuboidal
LESSON 2:
○ Columnar
Cells Tissue ● Other types of Epithelia:
○ Pseudostratified often ciliated
Classification of Tissues ○ Transitional only in urinary system
● Epithelial - shape, function, and location organs
● Connective - content and location Epithelial Tissues Based on Shapes
● Muscular - content and location 1. Squamous Epithelium
● Nervous - content, function, and ● Description: flat, possessing an
location oblong nucleus, and having a
Epithelial scale-like appearance.
● General Characteristics ● Location: outer layer of the skin,
○ Specialized contacts endothelium, and secretory parts
■ fit closely together to form of the small glands.
membranes ● Function: regulates the passage
■ bound together by specialized of substances into the underlying
junctions tissue
○ Polarity ○ Simple Squamous
■ apical and basal surfaces Epithelium l.s.
■ has one exposed surface 2. Cuboidal Epithelium
○ Supported by connective tissue ● Description: shaped like cubes,
○ Avascular but innervated and the nucleus of each cell is
■ Avascular - no blood supply of large and located close to the
their own center of the cell
● depend on the diffusion of ● Location: glandular (secreting)
nutrients from underlying tissue and kidney tubules.
connective tissue ● Function: absorption, secretion,
■ Innervated - supplied by nerves and protection.
○ Regeneration ○ Mammalian Kidney
■ if well nourished, epithelial cells Tubules c.s.
can easily regenerate 3. Columnar Epithelium
themselves - many epithelia ● Description: cells that are taller
are subjected to abrasion and than they are wide, with an oval
other types of trauma nucleus usually located towards
the basal region of the cell.
● Location: organs of the digestive
tract including the stomach, and
Tissues - Covering and lining of Epithelia intestines.
Classification: ● Function: Absorption of nutrients
● No. of cell layers and secretion of mucus, enzymes,
○ Simple and other substances.
○ Stratified name according to the ○ e.g. Stomach and Small
cells at the APICAL surface, not the Intestine
basement membrane 4. Ciliated Epithelium
● Cell shape
○ Squamous
 ● Description: group of cells that are cuboidal and/or columnar,
covered by hair-like projections but the classification of the
called cilia. epithelium is based only on
● Location: lines the trachea, the shape of the outermost
bronchi of the lungs, parts of the layer of cells. In this case,
nasal cavities, and some parts of stratified squamous
the reproductive organs. epithelium.
● Function: moving particles or fluid 3. Pseudostratified
over the epithelial surface. ● Description: epithelial tissue
○ e.g. Trachea consists of a single layer of
Epithelial Tissues based on Arrangement epithelial cells that are in direct
1. Simple contact with the basement
● Description: comprised of a single membrane, however, appear to
layer of epithelial cells that are in be stratified due to the positioning
direct contact with the basement of the cells.
membrane ● Location: larger respiratory
● Location: lining of the body airways of the nasal cavity,
cavities, blood and lymph vessels, trachea and bronchi.
heart and respiratory system. ● Function: absorption and
● Function: filtration (such as blood secretion of mucus, protection
filtration in the kidneys) or diffusion from foreign particles, and
(such as diffusion of oxygen into transport of materials such as
blood vessels of the lungs) occur. hormones and enzymes.
○ e.g. Mammalian kidney ○ e.g. Ciliated
tubules c.s. and Small Pseudostratified Columnar
intestine I.s. Epithelium and Stratified
2. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
● Description: type of epithelial 4. Transitional
tissue that is composed of more ● Description: Transitional
than one layer of epithelial cells. epithelium is a type of tissue that
The basal layer is the only one that changes shape in response to
is in contact with the basal stretching (stretchable
lamina. This layer is also the one epithelium).
that undergoes mitotic division ● Location: lining of the structures in
producing cells in the upper the urinary system
layers. ● Function: allow tissue to expand
● Location: epithelium of the skin and contract.
and of many mucous membranes Classification of Tissues
(e.g., mouth, esophagus, rectum, ● Connective (4 main types)
conjunctiva, vagina) ○ Connective tissue proper
● Function: Protection against ■ loose - areolar, adipose,
abrasion, microorganisms from reticular
invading underlying tissue, and ■ dense - dense regular,
water loss dense irregular, elastic
○ e.g. The other layers may ○ Cartilage
contain cells that are ○ Bone
 ○ Blood ○ Description: multinucleated highly
Extracellular Matrix specialized cell specialized for the
● non-living material between the cells resorption of a mineralized matrix.
● distinguishes connective tissue from all ○ Location: small depressions on the
other tissues bone's surface, called Howship
lacunae
Connective Tissues ○ Function: break down/degrade
1. Bone or Osseus Tissues old or damaged bone cells to
● Description: type of connective initiate normal bone remodeling
tissue that is hardened or 5. Hyaline Cartilage
becomes rigid due to ○ Description: is the most common
mineralization. It is composed of and widespread of the three
the bone matrix as well as the types of cartilage. It makes up the
bone cells. embryonic skeleton.
● Location: Skeletal System ○ Location: ends of the ribs, and in
● Function: support and protection the nose, larynx, trachea, and
of soft tissues, calcium, and bronchi.
phosphate storage and harboring ○ Function: lines your joints and caps
of bone marrow the ends of your bones which
○ e.g. Bone c.s helps it move smoothly past each
2. Osteocyte other in your joints.
○ Description: a cell that lies within ■ Trachea
the substance of fully formed 6. Fibrocartilage
bone and are derived from ○ Description: type of connective
osteoblasts. tissue that provides structural
○ Location: within lacunae support for the musculoskeletal
surrounded by mineralized bone system. It is a white, dense tissue
matrix with dense fibrous ssue and
○ Function: regulate the formation cartilage tissue.
of new bone and the resorption of ○ Location: intervertebral disks of
old bone. the spine and at the insertions of
■ Bone remodeling l.s ligaments and tendons.
3. Osteoblast ○ Function: act as a cushion within
○ Description: bone cells that can joints, where it helps manage
synthesize and secrete bone compression forces and reduces
matrix and participate in the stress placed on joints.
mineralization of bone to regulate
the balance of calcium and 7. Adipocytes
phosphate ions in developing ○ Description: a simple structure
bone. composed of a single lipid droplet
○ Location: bone surface (fat molecule) and a few cellular
○ Function: form new bones and organelles
grow and repair existing bones. ○ Location: under the skin
(subcutaneous fat), packed
around internal organs (visceral
4. Osteoclast
 fat), between muscles, within ○Function: defense against
bone marrow, and in breast tissue. parasites and promoting allergic
○ Function: energy storage, reactions.
insulation from extreme 3. Basophil
temperatures and cushioning ○ Description: Basophils are
around soft organs. intermediate in size between
8. Red Blood Cells or Erythrocytes neutrophils and eosinophils and
○ Description: shaped like a flat disk have simple or bilobed nuclei.
or doughnut, which is round with ○ Function: Release of histamine
an indentation in the center, but it and defends your body from
isn't hollow. allergens, pathogens and
○ Location: bone marrow parasites.
○ Function: carry oxygen from the 4. Monocyte
lungs and deliver it throughout our ○ Description: Monocytes are larger
body. than lymphocytes and
9. White Blood Cells or Leukocytes granulocytes and contain nuclei
○ Description: cellular component that often contain an indentation
of the blood that lacks on one side (kidney bean
hemoglobin, has a nucleus and is shaped).
capable of motility. ○ Function: destroys foreign
○ Location: blood and lymph tissues. substances by phagocytosis.
○ Function: circulate in the blood
and protect your body against
infection and disease by 5. Lymphocyte
producing inflammatory and ○ Description: Lymphocytes can
cellular responses to injury or appear either small or large. The
pathogens. small lymphocyte is about the
same size as an erythrocyte and
contains a large dark spherical
White Blood Cell Types nucleus with a thin rim of
1. Neutrophil surrounding cytoplasm.
○ Description: leukocyte that ○ Function: Facilitates Adaptive
exhibits a distinctly non-spherical immune responses which provides
nucleus, which is segmented into immunity for future invasions of
three to five lobes. bacteria, viruses, and parasites by
○ Function: a type of white blood producing antibodies.
cell (leukocytes) that act as your
immune system's first line of Muscular Tissues
defense. 1. Skeletal
2. Eosinophil ○ Description: type of voluntary
○ Description: Eosinophils are larger muscle tissue specialized for rapid
than neutrophils and are and forceful contraction of short
distinguished by bilobed nucleus duration. Contractile portions of
and large red or orange granules the tissue are arranged in Long
of uniform size. contractile fibres called myofibrils
which contain alternating bands.
 ■ The I-bands appear light in contraction like smooth muscle. It
color and the A-bands is involuntary.
appear dark in color. The ■ Histologically, cardiac
alternating pattern of muscle appears striated
these bands results in the like the skeletal muscle due
striated appearance of to arrangement of
skeletal muscle. contractile proteins.
○ Location: attached to bones via
tendons.
○ Function: contract to produce ○ Location: heart
movement, sustain body posture ○ Function: responsible for the
and position, maintain body contractility of the heart and,
temperature, store nutrients, and therefore, the pumping action
stabilize joints Nervous System
1. Motor Neuron
○ Description: part of the central
2. Smooth nervous system (CNS) and
○ Description: involuntary muscle connect to muscles, glands and
tissue specialized for slow and organs throughout the body.
sustained contractions of low These neurons transmit impulses
force. Instead of having motor from the spinal cord to skeletal
units, all cells within a whole and smooth muscles and so
smooth muscle mass contract directly control all of our muscle
together. movements.
■ The contractile proteins of ■ Dendrites are the finger-like
these cells are not cells present on the end of
arranged into myofibrils like a neuron. This fibre
those of skeletal and increases the surface area
cardiac muscle, they available for receiving
appear smooth rather than incoming information.
striated. Dendrites are the receiving
○ Location: walls of hollow visceral or input portions of a
organs (such as the liver, neuron.
pancreas, and intestines) ○ Location: cerebral cortex and
○ Function: Propulsion of the food spinal cord.
bolus, Regulation of blood flow ○ Function: allows for both voluntary
and urine flow, contractions and involuntary movements of
during pregnancy. effector muscles and glands.
3. Cardiac
○ Description: shares important
characteristics with both skeletal
and smooth muscle. Cardiac
muscle produces strong
contractions like skeletal muscle.
However, it has inherent
mechanisms to initiate continuous
LESSON 3
 ○ body's largest organ
LESSON 3:
○ makes up approximately 15% of
Integumentary System the body's total weight
○ consists of two layers
Medical Terminologies ■ epidermis and the dermis.
● cutane/o: skin ■ epidermis is the skin's
● cyan/o: blue most superficial
● derm/o: skin layer, composed of
● dermat o: skin stratified squamous
● kerat/o: hard epithelial tissue
● melan/o: black
● onych/o: nail
● seb/o: oil
Pronunciation Key
● arrector pili: a-REK-tor PYE-lye
● basale: ba-SAL-eh
● ceruminous: seh-ROO-min-us
● comedo: KOM-ee-doh Epidermis
● eponychium: ep-uh-NIK-ee-um ● avascular
● exocrine: EK-soh-krin ● keratinized stratified squamous
● keratinocytes: ke-RAT-in-oh-sites epithelium
● lucidum: Ioo-SEE-dum ● consists of:
● lunule: LOON-yule ○ four distinct cell types
● sebaceous: se-BAY-shus ■ Keratinocytes
Integumentary System ■ Melanocytes
● includes the skin and its accessory ■ Dendritic cells
organs ■ Tactile epithelial cells
● Skin ○ four or five distinct layers
○ tough yet pliable, a characteristic ● can be subdivided into two categories:
that enables it to withstand thin skin & thick skin
constant insult from outside
agents
○ has several functions, most
concerned with protection
■ cushions the underlying
body tissues and protects
the entire body from
mechanical damage,
chemical damage,
thermal damage, and
bacterial invasion.
■ The hardened uppermost
layer of the skin prevents
water loss from the body
surface
 ○ serve as receptors for fine touch
only
○ although they are found in the
Epidermal Cells stratum basale, they are
● Keratinocytes associated with nerve cells in the
○ appearance vary depending on underlying dermis
which epidermal layer we are ● Dendritic cells
examining. ○ immune system cells found in the
■ stratum corneum: stratum spinosum and the stratum
polygonal cells granulosum
■ stratum granulosum: ○ they alert the body's immune
granular cells system to the invasion of
■ stratum spinosum: small pathogens (disease-causing
prickle cells foreign invaders) that could make
■ stratum basale: hyper it through the stratum corneum
pigmented small round ● Langerhans cells
cells ○ Dendritic bone marrow derived
cells situated suprabasally in most
stratified squamous epithelia,
such as the epidermis
○ They ingest foreign substances
and play a key role in activating
the immune response

● Melanocytes
○ Dark and dendritic cells.
○ Histologically appears as spidery
black/gray cells or a nucleus
surrounded by grayish/blackish ● Merkel cells
wisps of cytoplasm. ○ Specialized cells in the skin that
○ Produce the reddish yellow to are important for proper neural
brownish black pigments encoding of light touch stimuli.
collectively called melanin. ○ oval-shaped, and their
membrane interacts with nerve
endings in the skin with synapse-
like structures

● Tactile cells
 ○ Thin, clear layer of dead &
flattened keratinocytes which do
● Stratum basale/ germinativum not feature distinct boundaries
○ Deepest layer of the epidermis and contain Eleiden
○ the only mitotically active layer of
the epidermis.

● The two primary functions are:

○ proliferation of cells (to replace
● Stratum corneum
old/damaged skin cells on the
○ variably thick (10-20 layers)
surface)
outermost layer of the skin.
○ attachment of the epidermis to
○ Cells are flattened keratinocytes
the dermis.
that lack nuclei (anuclear) called
● Stratum spinosum
corneocytes
○ "prickle cells" - desmosomes
○ Stratum corneum will shed
○ Directly anterior (superficial) the
approximately one layer of
stratum basale.
corneocytes each day in a
○ Site of keratinization of
process called desquamation.
keratinocytes.
○ Cells are mostly keratinocytes and
some Langerhans cells.
● Stratum granulosum
○ Thin layer of keratinocytes
containing dense, basophilic
(blue/purple) cytoplasmic
structures called keratohyalin
granules.
● Dermis
○ contains connective tissue, blood
vessels, oil and sweat glands,
nerves, hair follicles, and other
structures.
○ has two principal regions:
■ thin upper layer called the
papillary dermis
■ thick lower layer called the
● Stratum lucidum
reticular dermis
○ only present in thick skin of the
palms and soles.
LESSON 4
LESSON 4:

Skeletal System: Articular System

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