CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS

1. Interpersonal and mass media channels

Interpersonal channels are used for face to face communication between two or more people.
Mass media channels are mechanical devices through which an individual or group can reach a
relatively larger population in a shorter time. The members of the audience may be physically
separated.

2. Laccolite and cosmopolite channels

Laccolite means communication of the same system. Cosmopolite indicates communication

between many cultures, anything outside the system. Laccolite channels originate within the
social system of the receiver. Cosmopolite channels have their origin outside the immediate
social system. Interpersonal channels may be cosmopolite or laccolite depending on the location
of service but mass media channels are almost always cosmopolite.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHANNELS
(i) Time- space -time
Printed materials, still pictures and art objects are space organized. A radio broadcast and
telephone conversation are time organized. Face to face communication, sound, film and
television are time and space organized. Space organized media offer more favorable conditions
for difficult concepts for masses of detail and selectivity on the part of the audience.
- Time organized media offer advantage for rote learning of simple material and for encouraging
suggestibility on the part of the audience.
Space and time share the advantages and disadvantages of space media and time media.
-There are eye-men (Thomas) and ear-men.
These are skillful individuals in receiving space or time organized communication.
(ii) Participation

Media can be characterized as to whether they pursue much or little participation on the part of
the audience. A higher degree of social participation tends to create a sense of involvement, a
group bond and provides maximum feedback.

(iii) Speed:

Timeliness which books have the least.

(iv) Permanence:

Books give the greatest sense of permanence, followed by motion pictures and magazines. There
is a small amount of permanence in newspaper and least in radio and TV.
Choice of a channel depends on the objectives.

FEEDBACK
This is the action-reaction interdependence in communication. This is the return aspect in the
process of communication.
- An experienced communicator is sensitive to feedback and modifies the message in the light of
what is observed or heard from the audience.

- Feedback provides the source with information concerning his success in accomplishing his
objectives.

- Learners perceive better, gain more knowledge and retain longer when opportunities for
feedback are provided in a communication situation

- Person to person communication provides opportunities for maximum feedback. The source
has an opportunity to change the message as a result of the feedback received.

THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK IN EDUCATION/TEACHING

In education both the delivery of content and seeing the resultant effect of the transference of
new ideas are important.
i. Understanding vs. knowledge
Communication must promote understanding through effective and free feedback in order to
remove all barriers between the sender and the receiver.
ii. Acceptance vs. reaction

An alert and thinking human mind requires that facts are understood before they are accepted.
Mental acceptance precedes physical action. It is what human beings come to believe, not why
they merely know that determines what they do when they are free to act as they choose
feedback is essential in helping them act in the right way.
iii. Remembering vs. forgetting

Transmitting the right message to the right people at the right time is a crucial factor in
successful communication, with the help of free feedback.
iv. Mental vs. physical action

A change in one’s mind always precedes change in the action of the hand. Feedback removes the
mental barrier in the way of equal adoption of innovation.

Right vs. wrong

The intention of communication is to promote desirable action by an audience as determined by
the communication and the objectives. Constant feedback helps to correct transmission errors
entering the communication channels.
Feedback is thus:
1. Source oriented

2. Varies in different communication situations

3. Affects the source

4. Exerts control over future message

5. Affects communication fidelity

Barriers to effective communication
A barrier is anything that inhibits communication or undermines the successes of
communication.
Barrier to successful communication include message overload (when a person receives too
many messages at the same time), and message complexity.

Physical barriers: Physical Barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. Thus, for
example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are located in different buildings or on different
sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce
new technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently
causes communication difficulties for an organization. Whilst distractions like background noise,
poor lighting or an environment which is too hot or cold can affect people’s morale and
concentration, which in turn interfere with effective communication.

System design/ Organizational barrier: System Design faults refer to problems with the
structures of systems in place in an [Link] management may cause problem in
communication through;

(a) Policy – a plan of action e.g releasing a company vehicle to transport staff somewhere.
Some policies may be too rigid or discriminating. The management may be seen to favor
some staff thus causing resentment in the organisation.
(b) rule and regulations- these
must be too strict or too punitive . e.g locking workers inside a building to deter pilfering
or desertion of duty e.g Saudi Arabian Cases.
(c) patterns of communication: the methods used may not allow the staff to get information.
e.g downward flow may not reach all the workers at the bottom.
(d) status relationship – some top managers may have superiority that do not allow them to
come down to the level of juniors. They may be to conscious of their status.
(e) complexity in organisation structure – the distance between management may be to wide
or too far. Some managers do not accommodate juniors in their offices. Secretaries
become go-betweens. Other offices are far spared this takes too long to get information.
(f) fear of challenge in the authority- some managers lack confidence or know they are not
recognized or respected by the juniors thus keep a distance to avoid being challenged.

(g) Distrust and lack of confidence – some mangers do not trust those below them.
 They withhold information since it may be distorted or spread through the grapevine. E.g
a sick manager may not disclose this to a junior.

Attitudinal barriers: Attitudinal Barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an
organization. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor management,
lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result to people delaying or
refusing to communicate, the personal attitude of individual employees which may be due to lack
of motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them
carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.

Ambiguity of words and Phrase/Semantic barriers : Words sounding same but having
different meaning can convey a different meaning altogether. Hence the communicator must
ensure that the receiver receives the same meaning. It would be better if such words can be
avoided by using alternatives.
Other aspects of semantic barriers include;
(a) Use of excessive vocabulary outside the receivers experience.
(b) Pronunciation- this can be offered by accent .
(c) Faulty translation . a receiver interpret a message different form senders.
(d) Faulty grammar

Individual linguistics ability; is also important. The use of difficult or inappropriate words in
communication can prevent people from understanding the message. Poorly explained or
misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. We can all think of situation where we
have listened to something explained which we just could not grasp.

Physiological/mental barriers: may result from individuals’ personal discomfort, caused, for
example, by ill health, poor eye sight or hearing difficulties.
They may also include;
(a) attitude and opinion – if information follows a recipient, it is accepted but if it does not, it
is rejected e.g if a change in policy or in the organizations is advantageous , it is taken
positively and vice versa.
(b) emotions- strong emotions like fear, anger, worry can affect communication. The
communicator will not be able to organize the message properly.
(c) Closed mind- this is a person who sticks to his beliefs and opinions and cannot change.
Such a person is difficult to communicate with. He refuses to listen and can even become
rude and does not heed any advice.

He is not open to conviction or persuasion. He does not adapt new ideas or changes in
business even when they would be beneficial. He becomes critical and challenges
authority. (d) Status consciousness – some people are ever conscious of their level or
higher ranks and do not express themselves candidly.

(e) Prejudgment – some people have already formed an opinion over an idea or an opinion
over an idea or a person even before the communication interaction is complete. This
could be due to previous experiences or background knowledge which may be faulty.

(f) Premature evaluation – the communicator jumps into conclusion without listening to
reason . they only hear or see what they want to.

(g) Distrust among communicator. Lack of trust may lead to lack of trust to withhold of
information. Some communicators will not speak in the presence of others.

(h) Stereotyping and prejudice – some communicators have a bias towards individuals due to
their origin, religion and color.
Stereotyping – treating different people as the same just because they share a common
aspect like tribe, nation , religion etc.
Prejudice – a dislike or bias of people outside one’s set up e.g social economic status,
religion, tribe etc.

(i) In-attentiveness – some people rarely pay attention to what is going on around them, thus
could be due to feelings or too
many competing interests.

(j) Lack of knowledge – the communicator may lack knowledge on a topic or issue thus
unable to participate.

(k) Poor retention- some people are not able to store a lot of information and also have short
memory spans.

(l) Lack of interest – a person may not be interested in what is happening around them thus
fails to take part in a communication interaction.
(m)
Malice and hatred – such emotions may lead to withholding information or even
destroying it. Some issues remotely related to office matter may affect communication
e.g jealousy over personal achievements.
 (n) Lack of motivation – advice members may lack motivation due to poor terms and
conditions of service, working environment.

(o) Competition for attention a person may be involved in too many activities to pay much
attention to different situations. A busy social life can affect office productivity and vice
versa.
Presentation of information: is also important to aid understanding. simply put, the
communicator must consider the audience before making the presentation itself and in cases
where it is not possible the presenter can at least try to simplify his/her vocabulary so that
majority can understand.

Studying has many definitions. This week we intend to explore a variety of study skills that you
will find valuable in your studies. These include selecting and organizing information so that it
can be learnt-efficiently and easily. Other skills to be highlighted include planning your work
managing time and resources, taking and making notes, filing, critical thinking and problem
solving.

Culture
A culture
is a share system of beliefs, attitudes, values expectations and set standards , norms of behaviors .
culture affects communication in the following ways.
(i) social conformity- an individual changes his culture so as to fit in with the
culture of a wider group that he prescribes to. This is done so as to be
accepted and fit in the group e.g a punctual worker begins to report late since all
his friends do so.
(ii) culture differences – an individual in a social group behaves differently since the
culture of the bigger group conflicts’ his own culture. In the process he may
become isolated thus does not get information.
(iii) Ethical Constraints (ties) – the way a person behaves is controlled by the wider
organisation. The behavior beliefs and attitudes are determined by the moral
values of the group e.g rules and regulations, beliefs, taboos etc of the group.
(iv) Ethnocentrism – the belief that one won culture is better or superior to other
cultures. It brings about, superiority complex e.g my job is better.
(v) Stereotyping – risk of treating different people as the same just because they share
a common culture e.g job, career, school or organisation.
(vi) prejudice – dislike or bias or distrust of people outside ones own set up e.g
religion, tribe, profession etc.
All these can cause miscommunication or lack of communication.
Non-verbal signals
These are related to body signals. They include facial expressions, gestures, postures, eye contact
etc. These signals may mean different things to different people. They vary from culture to
culture, thus the message may not be understood or may cause negative reactions.

Ways of overcoming barriers to communication

An organisation should strife or aim at overcoming or reducing barriers to communication. This

can be done in various ways e.g
1. NOISE

(a) through site selection – construct organisation its premises its premises away from high
noise areas like markets, roads, airports, industries etc.
(b) Putting up notices – notices can be out up requesting people to maintain silence e.g do
not hoot, lesson in progress, maintain silence.
(c) Sound insulation – use ceilings, carpets etc to reduce noise in rooms .
(d) Thermal insulation – contract high or low temperature e.g through fans , heaters, planting
trees near buildings.
(e) telephone boosters – install boasters to reduce crackles or noise in the airwaves when
making calls.

2. HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS

Improve the relationship among the members through:

(a) Creating a climate of trust and confidence in the staff.
(b) Encouraging and motivation the staff.
(c) developing proper leadership styles which inspire confidence in the staff e.g avoid
favoritism and negative criticism.
(d) Creating teambuilding activities where members can be away from official stations and
have tine together e.g a sports day, company roadshow, open days etc.

3. MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION
Use channels or media that has a high likelihood of ensuring message reach the recipients
on tine and correctly.

4. COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication message at the right time using the best means possible to ensure
everyone gets the information. Use a language that can be understood by all irrespective
of their individual differences..
- Update staff or members on any policies or change as soon as possible.
By the end of the week you should be able to:
2.1.1 Outline skills that you will need to perfect your studies

2.1.2 Examine the factors that you would consider when drawing up a study timetable.

2.1.3 Evaluate the most effective methods of carrying out studies.

PLANNING YOUR WORK

It is your responsibility to develop your mind and plan for all the work you will be doing during
your studying. You have your academic studies, may be a family, a farm or some other business
to take care of. You will therefore need-a lot of discipline to study. Your 14
24 hr day will seem to be insufficient when all you have on your hands is considered. So being
able to plan for the day, week and even for a year will be necessary.
If you do not plan your time, you are likely to:
 Use too much time on one task leaving out no time or very little time for the other tasks.

 Work less efficiently because of lack of commitment.

 Do easy tasks first, postponing difficult ones.

When planning your study schedule, it is important to consider the time available for the work
and the amount to be done. Planning for work requires making a study timetable, choosing a
suitable study time, choosing which place to study effectively, choosing best methods to study
and forming study groups
A study time table
After making the commitment to work hard, it becomes necessary to make studying part of your
daily routine. When drawing the study time-table, the following should be considered.
i) The number of hours for reading the topics in each course. You should take note that these
could be hours you would spend sitting in the lecture hall before a lecture.

ii) Self-study hours

iii) Discussion hours

iv) Time for a break, recreation, socialization, religious activities or leisure and meals.

v) Time for re taxation/resting.

The time for self (private) study should be assigned different tasks depending on the work to be
done. For example, do not write-English-8hours: Break down the time into various tasks like:
looking for books, reading and making notes, reviewing notes, discussion, writing drafts, writing
a final copy.
 A good study timetable should have the following features.

 It should have all the activities of the day/week

 It should have the hour and amount of time for each activity.
 It should be reasonably flexible to allow unexpected schedules.

 There should be breaks

 For academic activities, the time table should show individual topics but not the whole course.

Time of study
It is not possible to prescribe the best time to study since it varies from person to person. Some
study early' in the morning like form 2.00 am to 6.00 am while others prefer to study late at night
like from 9.00 to 12.00pm.
Whatever time you study, you should pay attention to the following:
i) Be physically fit. When you are unwell you cannot concentrate on your studies

ii) Eat and sleep properly.

iii) Take a break for 15-20 minutes to relax in the course of studying.

iv) Change activity when boredom sets in.

v) When you are most fresh study those subjects that do not interest you, and when you are
getting tired, study those subjects that most interest you. You should train yourself to concentrate
on material, whether or not it is interesting. It is a matter of attitude and self-discipline.

You should always make an effort to find a convenient place for studying
Apart from pens and books, you will need a table, a chair, and good lighting at night.
Other factors like the following also have to be considered:
i) A quiet place with enough air and light

ii) A table that is clear of distractions like a newspaper, a radio or your children's exercise books.
You may be tempted to check how they are doing.

iii) Do not sit on a sofa set or a bed. You could easily go to sleep.

iv) If you decide to read in the sitting room, face the wall and not the people.
v) Avoid sitting near a window since you can see what is happening outside, and get distracted.

Method of study
For effective studying, you should carry out the following activities. 16

i) Read and make study notes. You can summarize your course notes or notes from books. Charts
or other aids can be used to help you remember what you learnt quickly.

ii) Think as you study and do not just read. Make an effort to recall the information;

iii) You should try to understand and not memorize all that you learn. However, certain
information must be memorized like names, dates and formulae.

iv) Read the same subject.

v) Draw relationships between content that you read. For example, some content that you learn
in communication skills can also be made use of in Education. Drawing from a background
information is also helpful since it will be in your long term memory

vi) Discuss with your fellow students or with your lecturers.

STUDY GROUPS
It should be possible for you to find two or more students registered for the same course with
whom you can form a study group. A study group has the following advantages.
i) You can gain from the planning skills of one, another

ii) You are able to make use of limited resources like textbooks by sharing within the group.

iii) You can learn from one another as well as son out any queries about the course work. Ideas
can also be exchanged, before writing your assignments.

iv) You can revise for examinations since you can cover more work as a group than as an
individual:

Tips about Organizing a Study Group

You should take in turns in organizing for your work. This is having a rotational chairperson
It is possible that you may keep this group for four years.
Meetings should be regular for easy recall.
Always plan ahead before you leave. Agree on what you should do when you meet the next time.
Discussion groups will only work if every member is committed. Participation must be 100%. 17
Remember that not all activities are suitable for a discussion group.
Perhaps the most serious problem noted in group discussions is that hot all students participate.
Lack of participation is caused by:
 Shyness

 Unwillingness to begin

 Unsuitable topic

 Lack of similar interests

 Lack of group leadership e.g. chairman, secretary.

2.5 SUMMARY
This week
2.6 ACTIVITY 2.6.1 Read through the module and write down the
study skills discussed
2.6.2 Make your own study timetable and determine the following
1). The courses
2). The duration for each course
3). Why you have allocated the sessions the way you have

Remember that not all activities are suitable for a discussion group.
Perhaps the most serious problem noted in group discussions is that hot all students participate.
Lack of participation is caused by:
 Shyness

 Unwillingness to begin

 Unsuitable topic

 Lack of similar interests

 Lack of group leadership e.g. chairman, secretary.

2.5 SUMMARY
This week we have learnt that, study skills are strategies that you will employ in order to recall,
understand, apply, analyze, synthesize and evaluate information read. Some of the skills include:
planning your work, designing a study timetable, choosing the best time of study and the best
study method. Similarly, study groups enhance planning skills, making use of limited resources
as well as maximizing the use of limited resources like textbooks through sharing within the
group.

2.6 ACTIVITY 2.6.1 Read through the module and write down the
study skills discussed
2.6.2 Make your own study timetable and determine the following
1). The courses
2). The duration for each course
3). Why you have allocated the sessions the way you have

3.4 MANAGING TIME

This involves how best to use the time available for attending lectures, private study, other
activities and relaxation. Managing time is best done by making a study time table, which helps
you distribute time appropriately for all your tasks. The time table should he realistic and easy to
adhere to. The following are tips for managing time:
Plan
Start each day by making a general schedule on things you must accomplish, and things you will
try to accomplish
Concentrate
Do not try to do too many things at the same time. Accomplish one before embarking on the
next.
Take breaks
Do not work continuously for long periods. Take breaks from books and do something unrelated
before going back to read. One study session should be about two hours.
Proper environments
Avoid too many books, paper etc. where you are reading. Only have those that you need at that
particular time.
Do not be a perfectionist
Striving for perfection leads to frustration and time wasting. Strive to produce the. , best you can
achieve - not the most perfect.
Learn to say no
Learn to tactfully but firmly decline to waste time on issues that do not help you to achieve your
goals.
Do not procrastinate
Do not put off or postpone tasks unnecessarily. What you can do today, do not schedule for
tomorrow.
Avoid time wasting
Do not participate in activities that simply waste your time e.g. idle talk and gossip.
Delegate
Assign other duties that they can perform, especially in group work.
Do not be a workaholic
Give yourself time for socialization, and involve yourself in hobbies and interests. Too much
work may be dangerous.

MANAGING RESOURCES
There are many resources available to a student at the university.
These include:
i) Books and other Academic Materials

ii) Lecturers

iii) Fellow students

iv) Outsiders-people in the ministry, others

v) Printed and Electronic Media - Newspapers, Radio, Internet, T.V.

vi) Money- from parents, relatives, HELB, etc.

These resources can only be beneficial to the student when they are efficiently managed.
Books
Some of the books and other academic materials that you will need are available in the
university, while others have to be bought. The following tips are important in the management
of books and other academic resources.
i. Check your reading list and the library stock before deciding on which books to buy.

ii. Seek advice from the lecturers or other students who are ahead of you.
iii. Postpone buying texts until lecturers have started when your needs become obvious.

iv. Do not buy books whose use will be so limited, that a library copy will suffice.

v. Check that a likely relevant book is both appropriate and readable before buying.

vi. Do not buy several books in groups

vii. Think of other equipment that you will need during your studies and make them top priority -
before you buy personal items.

viii. Create an efficient storage and retrieval system of books and other academic materials

ix. Always budget: identify the items you need and what they cost.