FEE(EEH101)

1.6 Classification of Electric current

Electric current is the flow of electrons through a conductor or circuit.

𝑄
Electric Current(I) =
𝑡

Where:

 I = Electric current (in amperes, A)

 Q = Charge (in coulombs, C)
 t = Time (in seconds)

Electric current is classified into two main types:

 Direct Current (DC)

 Alternating Current (AC)

1.6.1 Direct Current (DC)

Definition: A direct current is an electric current that flows in only one direction.

Characteristics:

 Its magnitude and direction remain constant over time.

 It is produced by sources like batteries.

 In a DC circuit, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
 It is unidirectional
Applications:
 Used in low-voltage applications such as charging batteries.

 Found in various electronic devices and household electronics.

 DC power is used in Cell phones, laptops, radios, and other electronic gadgets
 DC current are used in EV and hybrid cars and automobile
Source/ Example
Source: Battery, DC generator.

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Waveform:

Fig. 1.8
1.6.2 Alternating Current (AC)

Definition:
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses direction and changes
its magnitude continuously with time
Characteristics:
1. Both its magnitude and direction change over time.

2. The direction of electron flow changes multiple times per second.

3. It is bidirectional
Applications:
1. The main type of current used for power transmission and distribution to homes,
businesses, and industries.

2. Used to operate most household appliances and industrial equipment.

3. Transmission of electricity over long distance.
4. Operating electric motors used in appliances like refrigerators and washing machine.
Waveform:

Fig. 1.9

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Comparison between Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC)

Feature Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

Reverses direction Flows in one constant
Direction
periodically direction
Has a frequency measured in Does not have a frequency
Frequency
hertz (Hz) (zero frequency)
Magnitude Varies with time Remains constant over time
More efficient for long- Less efficient for long-
Transmission
distance transmission distance transmission
Easily transformed using Cannot be easily transformed
Transformation
transformers using transformers
Batteries, solar cells, DC
Sources AC generators, power plants
generators
Homes, industries, power Batteries, electronic devices,
Applications
transmission flashlights
It lies between o to
Power factor It is always unity.
1(leading or lagging)

1.7 Electric Sources

The term voltage source is used to describe a source of energy which establishes a potential
difference across its terminals. Most of the sources encountered in everyday life are voltage
sources e.g., batteries, d.c. generators, alternators etc.
The term current source is used to describe a source of energy that provides a current e.g.,
collector circuits of transistors. Voltage and current sources are called active elements
because they provide electrical energy to a circuit.
1.7.1 Ideal Voltage Source or Constant-Voltage Source
Definition- “An ideal voltage source (also called constant-voltage source) is one that
maintains a constant terminal voltage, no matter how much current is drawn from it”.

Characteristics:

 Output voltage remains almost constant.

 Current varies depending on the load.
 An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.

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Therefore, it would provide constant terminal voltage regardless of the value of load
connected across its terminals. For example, an ideal 12V source would maintain 12V across
its terminals when a 1 MΩ resistor is connected
(so I = 12 V/1 MΩ = 12μA) as well as when a 1 kΩ resistor is connected ( I = 12 mA) or
when a 1 Ω resistor is connected (I = 12A). This is illustrated in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10.
The ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

Fig. 1.11.
The V-I characteristics of an ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of ideal
voltage source is zero Ohms. Hence, the ideal voltage sources do not exist practically,
because there will be some internal resistance.

Examples:

Batteries

DC generators

Regulated power supplies

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1.7.2 Practical Voltage Source

A practical voltage source has low but finite internal resistance (Rs) that causes its
terminal voltage to decrease when load current is increased and vice-versa.
A real voltage source can be represented as an ideal voltage source in series with a
resistance equal to its internal resistance (Rs) as shown below figure

Fig. 1.12.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of a practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of a ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of a practical voltage source.
1.7.3 Ideal Current Source
Definition:An ideal current source or constant current source is one which will supply the
same current to any resistance (load) connected across its terminals.

Characteristics:

 Output current remains almost constant.

 Voltage varies depending on the load.
 An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.

Therefore, it supplies the same current to any resistance connected across its terminals. This
is illustrated in Fig.1.13. The symbol for ideal current source is shown in Fig.1.13. The arrow
shows the direction of current (conventional) produced by the current source Since an ideal
current source supplies the same current regardless of the value of resistance connected
across its terminals, it is clear that the terminal voltage V of the current source will depend on
the value of load resistance.

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For example, if a 2 A current source has 10 Ω across its terminals, then terminal voltage of
the source is V = 2 A × 10 Ω = 20 volts. If load resistance is changed to 100 Ω, then terminal
voltage of the current source becomes V = 2 A × 100 Ω = 200 volts. This is illustrated in
Fig. 1.13.

Fig. 1.13.
An ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure

Fig. 1.14.
The V-I characteristics of an ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an
independent ideal current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be
some internal resistance.
1.7.4 Practical Current Source
A Practical current source has high but finite internal resistance (Rs). Therefore, the load
current (IL) will change as the value of load resistance (RL) changes.
A real current source can be represented by an ideal current source (I) in parallel with its
internal resistance (Rs) as shown in Fig.1.15. When load resistance RL is connected across the
terminals of the real current source, the load current (IL) is equal to the current I from the

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ideal current source minus that part of the current that passes through the parallel internal
resistance (Rs) i.e.,
The V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

Fig. 1.15.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of a practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of a ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of a practical current source
1.7.5 Source Conversion
(i) Practical voltage source into a practical current source
The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the
following figure

Fig. 1.16.
Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS). This
can be converted into a practical current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current
source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented
as

……………….(1.13)

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(ii) Practical current source into a practical voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the
following figure.

Fig. 1.17.
Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS). This
can be converted into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage
source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS). The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS
and RS.
Mathematically, it can be represented as

.……(1.14)

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