Sociometry

1. Conceptual delimitations

The term sociometry, which comes from o combination a Latin for social a
The Greek sculimetron (measure) was first used by N. Spallart at a congress held in Rome in 1887.
Sorokin claims that the term was first used by A. Coste in 1899.

Initially, the meaning of sociometry was to use mathematics in social sciences, gradually acquiring completely different
meanings, on which even those who practice it do not have a similar point of view. Thus, the Danish sociometrist A.
Bjerstedt identified 13 distinct definitions of sociometry, which he sent for evaluation to 269 authors who have addressed it.
sociometry. It reprinted 131 responses which, in the majority, imposed the idea that sociometry is the 'quantitative treatment of
"preferential interpersonal relations" (Gould, J., Kolb, W.L.(ed.), 1965, p.6).

The emergence of sociometry is indissolubly linked to the name of J.L. Moreno (1892-1974), born in Bucharest and who is
considered her spiritual father.

The basic concepts of Moreno are:

The social universe consists of 3 closely related elements:

a) the external society, which is represented by the ensemble of groups in society, large and small: family, school,
the army, the church. It reveals itself to the senses and is relatively easy to decipher, representing macroscopic reality;

b) the sociometric matrix, which represents the 'microscopic reality' of unofficial preferential relationships and which cannot
but you sense it only with special techniques in the 'intimate' world of society;

c) the social reality, which represents the result of the contradiction, the confrontation between the first two.

From the above, we could say that society is understood by J.L. Moreno in the form of a triad.
dinamice:teza– „matricea sociometrica”, antiteza– „societatea externa” sisinteza– „realitatea sociala”, ca rod al
the compromise between the thesis and the antithesis.

Even understood this way, Moreno argues that sociometry is not exhaustive, it does not clarify everything in society, because
it fits into a pyramid of sciences, starting from the top, where (Mihu, A., 1967, p.18):

sociology - the science of the structural, large laws of society;

sociodynamics - the science of the structure of social aggregates (of unique and closed groups);

-sociometry–the science of social measurements, involves the quantification of the social (the emphasis is placed first on the socius
and then on the metronome). It is based on a special test;

socioathria - the science concerning the ways of healing the social organism.

The entire sociometry is fundamentally based on the concept of interpersonal relationships, based on the factor 'tele'. J.L.
Moreno defines the element as a psychological connection between people, between people and their roles, and between people and
objects.

The teleelement is sometimes referred to by Moreno as the "social electron", as part of the social atom, which represents the unit.
the smallest of the social matrix.

Telepathy can manifest in many forms, including:

[Link] teleelement, which indicates the preferential relationship between two or more individuals.

He can be:
 -compatibility- when attraction preserves the rank order, meaning it happens at the same level of preference (A prefers B)
B would prefer A);

-incompatibility- when attraction occurs in different order (A chooses B first, and B chooses A second)
row, the third row).

2. Teleological element symbolic – the preference is not directed towards the person, towards the ego, but towards a certain role or symbol.
whoever it represents, regardless of the person in question.

Example: A's attraction to B may not be for their real ego, but for a 'role' or 'symbol' that they represent.
(the role of doctor, priest, judge);

3. teleelement object - preference is directed towards a certain object;

[Link]-tele manifests itself when preference is not mutual (A prefers B, but B rejects or ignores him)
on A).

Interpersonal relationships and preferential structures

Between 2 or more subjects, there are 4 fundamental types of relationships:

1. attraction (likability), which can be:

a) unilateral (A prefers B, A B);

b) reciprocal (A prefers B, but B also prefers A; A B).

2. rejection (repulsion, antipathy), which can be:

a) unilateral (A rejects B; A ----> B);

b) reciprocal (A <-----> B).

3. indifference – a preference with a positive or negative value, but still uncrystallized;

4. Ignoring - positive or negative preference, but which the subject considers not worthy of attention.

Preferential structures represent those 'arrangements' preferentially formed within small groups and manifested
among their members. They designate the way in which preferential interpersonal relationships are organized among the members of a
group.

J.L. Moreno highlights the following preferential structures (according to Grama, D., 1974, p.60):

the mutual attraction between 2 individuals A B;

2. mutual rejection between two individuals A B;

3. incompatible pair, with incompatibility between choice–rejection; choice–indifference;

choose - ignore (A prefers B, but B rejects A, is indifferent or ignored: B); A

4. the chain of attractionsA B C . X;

 5. the chain of rejections A B C . .X;

6. the triangle of attractions (individuals A, B, C attract each other);

B C

7. the triangle of repulsion (individuals A, B, C repel each other);

B C

The attraction square (individuals A, B, C, D attract each other);

A B

C D

9. the square of repulsions (individuals A, B, C, D repel each other);

A D

B C

10. the circle of attractions (at least 5 individuals are attracted to each other);

A D
 B C

11. the star of attractions (at least 5 individuals are attracted to the same individual);

B F

C A E

12. the star of rejection (at least 5 individuals reject the same individual);

B F

C A E

13. the non-homogeneous star (the individual who attracts at least 5 individuals repels most of them).

B F

C A E

Preferential structures within human groups are highlighted in the collective sociogram. In general, the types of
relationships and preferential structures will become criteria for judging the interpersonal climate within the group, the degree of cohesion
of the group.

In principle, the climate and cohesion of a group are judged by the following criteria:

a) according to the number of expressed preferences (especially in the free test, not limited to a certain number of
preferences)
 b) the share of mutual preferences in the total preferences;

c) the weight of the "figures" (triangles, squares, etc.), constituted by reciprocities;

d) the length of the communication chain through reciprocity.

[Link] used in sociometric research

The different sociometric methods and techniques are grouped into 3 main types of methods that differ from each other.
after their objectives:

Psychodrama, as a therapeutic group method, is supposed to unleash the spontaneity and creativity of its members.
removes emotional tensions arising in individual and group life.

2. The social configuration test - highlights the structure of preferential relationships at the level of small groups. It is expressed in
sociogram collective that 'shows the situation of the relationships between absolutely all members of the group', being of two types (Zlate, M., Zlate,
C., 1982, p.39):

a) collective sociogram in the functional space of the group, which takes into account the spatial arrangement of members in
the virtue of the functional relationships between them;

b) collective sociogram releases, starting from the psychological value of each member in the group.

3. the actual sociometric test, which shows the individual's preferential state within the group. The test is
concretizes in "individual sociogram, which reflects the situation of the affective relationships of only one individual within the group"
(Zlate, M., Zlate, C., 1982, p.39).

None of the sociometric methods can be reduced to a procedure or to any technique of research.
concrete (test, graphical representation, etc.), each of them representing a set of procedures and investigation techniques.
The methods mentioned above largely originate from Moreno's work, but they do not belong exclusively to him.
they being completed and improved through the contribution of a large number of researchers.

[Link] technique

Sociometric technique aims to investigate and understand interpersonal relationships among people, especially
of affective-sympathetic relations, of preference or rejection. Sociometric techniques have become indispensable tools in
the framework for investigating human action in a social group. In a broader sense, 'sociometric techniques include both the instruments of
collection of factual material, as well as the modalities of its processing and interpretation" (Nicola, I., 1974, p.82).

In our country, sociometric technique has found a wide echo in the research of industrial work groups and those
to school

The sociometric technique is designed as "a set of interrelated sub-techniques or procedures (the test
sociometric, sociomatrix, sociogram, sociometric indicators) which requires adherence to certain methodological rigor" (Zlate, M.,
Zlate, C., 1982, p.37.

The starting point of any sociometric research is the application of a sociometric test that asks each
group member to confidentially express their states based on a preference scale established by the researcher.
attraction, rejection or indifference towards other group members, depending on a precisely determined criterion (free time,
etc).
 The sociometric test is a relatively simple tool used to measure affective-sympathetic relationships.
among the group members. He provides only raw material regarding these relationships, without claiming to understand them deeply.
exhaustive mode in their content and forms of manifestation.

M.C. Northway (1964, p.82) shows that: "a sociometric test is a means that provides the possibility to determine
the level at which individuals are accepted into a group, to discover the relationships between these individuals and to indicate the structure
the group itself.

J.L. Moreno (1960, p.263) defined the sociometric test as "a tool that examines social structures".
in measuring the attractions and repulsions that occur between the individuals of a group.

In using the sociometric test in concrete research, it is of interest to know the following issues:

a) what does a sociometric test look like and how is it made;

b) what are its elements;

c) how to administer a sociometric test.

a) An example of a classic sociometric test suitable for children aged 10–14 is provided by M.C. Northway (1964, p.6):

Name ----- Date ----- Place.

When you play during recess, if you are asked to choose, which children from this class would you prefer as playmates?

first choice

b) the second choice;

c) the third choice.

2. If you are working on a given topic in class, with which children, in case you are asked to choose, would you prefer to work?

a) first choice;

b) the second choice;

c) the third choice.

In case a friendly meeting will be organized, which classmates will you choose as partners?

first choice;

b) the second choice;

c) the third choice.

Regarding the preparation of the sociometric test, the criterion based on which the subject expresses their options can be
used as being:

a hypothetical situation, but with a probability of becoming reality;

an utterly improbable, impossible situation.

 The criterion represents the situation or dominance of the activity for which the questions are formulated. The criterion expressed by the test
In the questions formulated, the person being addressed is asked to name a number of subjects from the group considered by
to be suitable for the highlighted situation. It is requested that the choices be made hierarchically, each position being endowed with
a certain score.

In the composition of the sociometric test, some authors rely on a single criterion, while others consider sufficient
for ordinary situations only 3 criteria, with cases where the number of criteria used is not justified. It is suggested however
the use of multiple criteria (not excessively many, but possibly 3) provides increased knowledge about the preferential life of
of individuals and small groups (Holban, I., Gugiuman, A., Munteanu, A., 1978, p.175).

b) The sociometric test must include the following elements:

1. The motivation for applying the test (why the completion of such a questionnaire is requested);

2. ensuring confidentiality (gaining trust; name is not required). Subjects are assured that their opinion
the law will not be brought to the attention of the other members of the group;

3. determining the preferential situation (of choice) which must include:

Establishing the limits of the preferential area (the limits of the group and its nature): class, group of friends, etc.

Example: 'choose only your class colleagues' or you can 'choose other people from other classes';

-precizarea calitatilor alegerii: alegere–respingere–indiferenta;

-precizarea criteriului testului: „asezarea in banci”, „petrecerea timpului liber” etc si stabilirea unui singur criteriu sau
eventually on several criteria. All authors who have addressed sociometry unanimously agree that the establishment of the criterion must be
the role of careful deliberation, with prior knowledge of the group's concerns playing an important role. The criteria are always
they are established precisely, taking into account the real situation of the researched group (age, type of activity, etc);

-limiting or unlimited number of choices or rejections: 'choose only 3 of your colleagues' or 'choose as many as you want'
you want: 3, 4, 7, each according to what they see fit;

In the early sociometric studies, some authors used the method of limiting the number of choices and rejections. Other authors
consider that the number of positive and negative preferences should not be limited, as this unjustly hinders the subject
to remain only at a predetermined number of choices or rejections, or at the same time encourages him to express such a number
preferably even if they would not be tempted to do it.

the order of preference (using a preferential scale);

For example: you place the one you prefer the most in first place, another in second place, and so on.

George Bastin shows that the order of preferences allows for an in-depth analysis of types of reciprocity and
the forms that subgroups take.

establishing not only the preference for someone (whom each subject chooses and whom they do not), but also the perception of being
or not chosen by the other members of the group (who believes they were chosen and who believes they were not chosen);

4. establishing the process of prioritizing and quantifying preferences (thus, out of 3 possible choices, the first choice is assigned)
3 points are awarded for the first, 2 points for the second, and 1 point for the third; out of three possible rejections, the first is given -3 points, the second
–2 p, and for the third –1 p).

Since the responses obtained through the sociometric test are only raw materials, the need arises immediately
the processing of these, for the purpose of determining primarily the preferential position that the individual occupies in the group from which
it is part. This is possible by creating a sociomatrix.

The sociomatrix is a double-entry table that lists all members of the investigated group, along with their choices and
the responses emitted and received by each. Noting vertically and horizontally the names of the subjects, by interlacing the lines.
horizontal with the vertical ones, for each subject there is a place in the form of a square called 'registration cell'. Next to
For each voting subject (from the horizontal line), a + is noted in the corresponding square of the chosen subject (from the vertical).
with the number of points corresponding to the position it occupies in the top of positive or negative preferences expressed by
subject (table no. 1).

+ 3 points for the first chosen subject in order of importance; - 2 points for the second rejected subject in order
importantei etc.

After recording all the answers, at the bottom of the table, a note will be made next to each subject on
the total number of choices and rejections obtained. By algebraically summing the choices and rejections, it will be established
the place occupied by each individual within the group, that is, the sociometric position of each (Holban, I., Gugiuman, A., Munteanu,
A., 1978, p.178.

Different sociometric indices are calculated based on the analysis of the results recorded in the matrix, from which a
multitude of information about the individual and the group:

sociometric status index, which represents the position occupied by an individual within the group and is dependent on
the number of votes received by each individual.

Iss= votes received by x / N–1, (N–number of members in the group)

preferred status index. It is more sensitive than Issbecause it takes into account both the elections and
the responses received by each subject, thus avoiding the situation where the group of subjects has positive sociometric statuses.

Isp= elections–rejections received by x / N–1, (N–the number of members in the group)

its affective expansiveness (how many choices it makes within the group)

Et= E+ + E- , Ettotal expansiveness;

E+ negative expansiveness;

E- positive expansiveness.

E+ = n / N–1, n –the number of choices that have been formulated;

N - the number of members in the group.

E-= n / N–1, n–the number of rejections that have been formulated;

N – the number of members in the group.

the probability that an individual will be chosen by another.

p = d / N–1, d – the number of choices made on average by each subject;

N–the number of members in the group.

the probability that one individual will be rejected by another.

q = 1–p

Example:
 AB BC CD DE EF FG
AB +2 -1 -2 +1
BC +2 +1 -1 -2
CD +2 -2 +1 -1
DE -2 +2 -1 +1
EF +2 +1 -2 -1
FG +1 -1 +2 -2
Elections 5 5 2 3 1 2
Respingeri 2 1 1 6 4 4
Isp 3/6 4/6 1/6 -3/6 -3/6 -2/6

(0,5) (0,66) (0,16) (- (- -0.33

0.5 0.5

Table No. 1 Socio-matrix of a group of 9 students

In order to establish the nature of the relationships among the group members, it is necessary to further create a sociogram.
of the group.

Sociogram represents the graphic representation of the affective-sympathetic relationships among group members. Through it
We can know if the relationships of choice or rejection are reciprocal or just unilateral, if the preferences are met.
d

The sociogram presents the distribution of choices and rejections spatially using concentric circles, thus
the student with the best sociometric status should be placed in the center, while towards the periphery, in an increasingly
"Departing, students who, depending on their sociometric status, move away from the center" (Ezechil, L., 1996, p.20).

Starting from the data recorded in the sociomatrix and sociogram, a multitude of aspects can be highlighted regarding
group preferential, the analysis can be performed at several distinct levels:

At the individual level, based on the sociometric or preferential status, one can deduce the position occupied by each.
member of the group;

At the interpersonal level, the types of relationships that exist among the group members can be highlighted, depending on the preferences.
reciprocal or unilateral, the situation of preferences based on the sex of the group members and how they are distributed
among them;

At the group level, preferential structures existing within the group can be highlighted (the circle of attractions, the triangle)
of the responders) and which hold great significance for the socio-affective atmosphere of the group as well as for its performance.