SUMMARY

Planimetry
Generalities:………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
- Definition
- Representation
- Scale, accuracy
- Plans

The Canvases: ................................................................................ 4

- LAMBERT System
- Network I.G.N. 69

The Theodolite :……………………………………………………………………………………. 7

- Description
- Stationing
- Measuring angles
- Control

The Planimetry: 13
- Linear measures
- Alignments
- Planimetric survey methods
- Special cases

Survey methodology: ... 20

- Reconnaissance
- Raised

Polar coordinates - Rectangular coordinates:............................... 21

- Deposits
- Transmission of deposit
- The VO
- Transformation of polar coordinates into rectangular coordinates
- Transformation of rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates

Points Report: ............................................................... 27

- Half points
- Interpretation
- Dressing

The planimetric layout:…………………………………………………………………… 31

- Implementation of straight alignments
- Implementation of perpendicular alignments
- Drawing a parallel
- Implementation of a given angle
- Implementation of points
- Particular case: implantation of curves

Altimetry
Indirect leveling: ………………………………………………………….………………….. 37
- Principle
- Particular case

Direct leveling: .......................................................... 39

- The material
- Principle
- Methods
- Compensation
- Particular case
- Use of levels

Contour lines: ................................................................. 46

- Representation of the relief
- Characteristic lines of the terrain
- Methods of altimetry surveying
- Construction of curves

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 GENERALITIES

1) Definition.
The word topography comes from the Greek topos (the place) and graphein (to describe).
Topography is the set of operations that allow for the graphical representation of the
configuration of the land with all the details found there, the study of a project, the layout.

Plan STUDY Project

LIGHT IMPLANTATION

Terrain Achievement

2) Characteristics of this representation.

The orthogonal projection:

This representation is done using an orthogonal projection referenced on a reference surface.

The projection plan being horizontal, it is therefore necessary to use both measurements of lengths.
and horizontal angles. It will be the same for the surfaces.

Regarding distances, they must be either measured directly horizontally (most common case...
current), either following the slope and then reduced (trigonometric calculation).

Regarding angular measurements, they are directly taken on the field using a
instrument determining horizontal angles: the alignment circle.

Generally, for routine work, the limited extent of the area to be represented allows for neglecting the
corrections due to the sphericity of the earth. Thus, in the case of small extent, one will take as the surface of
reference a plane perpendicular to all verticals.

3) Notions of scale and precision.

The scale of a plan is the constant ratio that exists between the graphic length on the plan and the same
horizontal length on the ground, in the same unit.

dimension plan
Echelle=
terrain dimension

By convention, the larger the scale, the smaller the denominator and vice versa. Depending on the extent.
From the area of land, we will refer to a map (small or medium scale) or a plan (large scale).

Maps

1/10 000 food below

Topographic maps

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 Topographic study plans
1/5 000 :
Urban planning
Land Use Plans (POS)
1,/2 000 :
Parcel descriptive plans
1/1 000 : Parcel plans
1/500 : Urban cadastral plans
1/200 : Road plans, site layout documents
1/100 : Property plans
1/50 : Architectural plans

A topographic plan is merely a tool to have an accurate image of the terrain in the office.
in order to be able to use all its possibilities It is the needs of the user that must be complied with
topographer in the choice of scale and precision to be achieved, therefore the processes to be used.

It is accepted that for an experienced designer, under good working conditions, their precision
The graph is +/-0.2 mm. This leads to some constraints in terms of measurements on the ground.

Plan scale Graphic precision Ground precision

at 1/200 +/- 0.2 mm 4 cm terrain

at 1/1000 +/- 0.2 mm 20 cm terrain

In all cases, it will be necessary to adapt one's working method and material to the requirements.

4) Execution of plans.
The set of measures that need to be taken on the ground to obtain the elements of its representation
The graph constitutes what is called a 'site plan'.

To represent the terrain, which is a volume in three dimensions, on a plane, a two-dimensional flat surface.
dimensions, one readily understands that we are led to make two distinct representations.

Also, among the measures taken on the ground, it will be necessary to distinguish:

those that provide horizontal projections of ground details and constitute the planimetry.

those that allow for the definition of contours and elevation curves and are the subject of altimetry.

Thus, we will consider two types of plans: the planimetric plan - position of points on the terrain.
only - (e.g. cadastral plan) and the topographical plan - indication of the position and altitude of the points
(ex road project).

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 THE CANVASES

LAMBERT system.
In order to establish plans with satisfactory precision, regardless of the scale, it was absolutely necessary
determine a number of points throughout the territory, clearly visible from one another (thus placed
relatively high), which would serve as support for all common topographic measurements. Thus
what was created and then developed through a technique called triangulation, the geodetic network in France
(or geodesic canvas).

The geodetic network

There are nearly 100,000 geodetic points that cover the country with a network.
homogeneous with a density of 1 point every km. The points are marked.
sustainably - most commonly by a terminal - and chosen in such a way
that from a point, it should be possible to observe the neighboring points. Each point being the
peak of a triangle chain, its position is determined by measurements
of angles and distances measured using high-precision instruments
(theodolite and distance meters); hence the name triangulation given to this
method. Some distances between points of the network are measured with a
extreme precision. These are the geodetic bases. From these well-defined bases
distributed, it is possible to ensure good scaling of the network. A
General error compensation ensures the uniformity of the whole.

For the representation of a portion of an ellipsoid on a plane, the I.G.N. chose the Lambert system.
(conic projection) thus creating a Lambert grid. This grid allows all these points to be designated by
their rectangular coordinates (X,Y).
To avoid excessive distortions (curvature of the Earth), France is divided into 4 zones:

Lambert kilometer grid.

x = 600, y = 200
In each area, the meridian of Paris and
the average parallels are represented, on the
map, by two perpendicular lines; one can
so create, from these lines a
kilometric grid that allows the transfer of
Cartesian coordinates of all the points of
the represented area. One does not give to
the intersection of the Paris meridian and the parallel
average the coordinates x = 0, y = 0, but some
values such that no point in the area has
negative coordinates; thus for the
zones I, II and III these values are x = 600 km and
y = 200 km.
The Lambert grid is not drawn
on the map but leads in the margin and
crosshairs inside the card allow
possibly to reconstruct it.

All these points are perfectly recorded on 'geodetic point mapping notebooks' and
Their contact details are listed on information sheets. These sheets are made available to
surveyors at the I.G.N. (National Geographic Institute).

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 For several years now, a new way of determining the coordinates of a point has emerged.
sun, through satellites It is the G.P.S. (Global Positioning System) that proves to be a
good reliability and good accuracy (less than cm).

This diagram gives a simplified way (in the plan and not
in space), the principle of operation of a receiver
GPS used to position a mobile device that carries it (in
in three-dimensional space, four satellites are needed instead of
three).
The satellites each have a very accurate atomic clock.
precise, these clocks are synchronized ("they indicate the
same time). At 'zero' time, everyone emits a pulse.
which propagates in space in concentric waves to
satellites. The mobile receives these impulses in turn at
times t1, t2, t3..., which should in principle allow for measurement
the distance of the mobile to each satellite, since the waves
propagates at the speed of light, denoted as c. Indeed, if the
mobile has a clock that "is on time" in relation to
that of the satellites, he will know exactly the times t1, t2,
t3... arrival of the impulses and will deduce the distances to
satellites ct1, ct2, ct3. Knowing the position of these.
at the time of the broadcast, thanks to the messages sent by the
satellite itself, the receiver will find that the three circles
focused on the satellites intersect at a single point
his position.

IGN Network 69.

After several historical steps, another very important framework was created on French territory: the
altimetric grid. There are about 400,000 leveling markers in France, all these points having been
measured with respect to a common origin (zero level surface = average sea level) determined by the
marigraph of Marseille. All this work of altitude determination constitutes the N.G.F. (General Leveling of
France.

Wall leveling marker

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 For several years, metropolitan altitudes will belong to two different systems:

the old system 'LALLEMAND'

the new system "I.G.N. 69" (takes into account the pressures).

Three cases can arise in leveling directories:

When it comes to IGN 69 coordinates, the mention 'normal altitudes' appears in the margin of
each page.
In case of the publication of double odds, the old odds have been crossed out.
If no mention is made, it consists solely of old ratings.

Note: in the Lyon region, to obtain the normal altitudes IGN 69, add + 24 cm to the values.
ancient system LALLEMAND.

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 THE THEODOLITE

The theodolite is one of the most technically complex surveying instruments, but its principle
is relatively simple, just like its use.
It is mainly used to measure horizontal and vertical angles and to obtain precise alignments.

1) Description.
A theodolite has several parts that can rotate around certain axes.
Main axis

Secondary axis or
axis of the pegs
(axis of rotation and the
eyeglass

Optical axis
c

b
a

a) The base: connection between the measuring instruments and the tripod.
It includes 3 locking screws (level adjustment).

b) The limb: Graduated circle (horizontal circle) with divisions in degrees (principally fixed during the
measurements) and whose center is located on the main axis. It also includes a spherical level.

c) The alidade: Mobile part that includes the glasses

a toroidal level
a graduated circle (vertical circle)

The spherical level is used to indicate the vertical or horizontal of an element of the theodolite but of
approximately.

Good Acceptable Bad

The toric or tubular level serves the same purpose but in a much more precise manner.

2) Setting up.
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 Order of the Manipulation Parties
operations activated

While keeping the tripod set

plateau roughly + theodolite.
horizontal pleasure
the main axis very
close of the
Approximate centering: station.

Bring the axis The heating screws.

principal
perfectly on the
station.

Fine centering:

Lower the bubble of the Les feet

spherical level. sliding.

Approached calibration:

In one position, 2 tightening screws,

call the bubble then the 3eme.
toric level with
2 fish, then at 100 grams,
Final adjustment: call again
with the 3thsee.

Mounting bracket of
Check: Ensure that we are still centered on the station, otherwise move the theodolite to
the platform, then start the fine adjustment again.
theodolite at
tripod.

3) The measurement of angles.

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 Once the stationing is completed, the angle measurement operation can begin. A principle
important, that of the reference. This is a first reading carried out on a distant and precise point. It will be
Return to the end of the station to confirm that neither the instrument nor the tripod moved during the measurements.

The horizontal angles.

When we aimed at point A with the crossing of the wires of

reticle, the index stopped on a reading of the limb.

Then, aiming at C, the index and the alidade were

displaced and are positioned facing a new
lecture.

The horizontal angle thus measured is obtained by

the operation:

α= End reading - Starting reading

= LcLA

Note: An angular discrepancy of 1 Cgr (centigrade) corresponds to a shift of 1.57 cm at 100 m.

This allows for appreciating the angular closure and the precision required in measuring angles.

Vertical angles.

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 Unlike horizontal angles, the measurement of vertical angles is read directly, the origin of these
angles is generally placed at the zenith .

4) Control.

A control, the "double backflip," allows on one hand to avoid a foul and on the other hand to bring
better accuracy by reducing errors in angle measurement.

It consists of performing 2 rotations: from the eyepiece around the secondary axis
of the alidade around the main axis

We obtain readings taken between the position CG (circle on the left) and CD (circle on the right):

for horizontal angles, different from 200 gr+I-ε

for the vertical angles, complementary to 400 g +/-ε

Device Particularity Lecture

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T1

- Vertical collimation level?

- With the micrometer knob,
frame the value V (white) or HZ
(yellow) and carry out the reading.

More precise than the T 16

T16
- Vertical collimation level?
- Directly perform reading V
(white) or HZ (yellow).

Pinch of the circle:

she allows
to direct the
horizontal circle
to obtain
any
departure reading.

T2
- Select the type of angle to
to measure

Vertical

Horizontal

- With the micrometer knob,

superimpose the 2 scales and
carry out the reading.

Device Particularity Lecture

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RDS

Automatic reducing teletape

- Level of vertical collimation?

By tilting the eyepiece, bring the
lower stadimetric trait (curve
origin) on a round coast (L1).
2) Reading with the stadimetric line
superior (L2) gives:
D = 100 (L2 - L1)
3) The reading of the stadimetric line
median (L3) gives:
ΔH = 100 x C x (L3 - L1)

Note: Exceeded today with the arrival of

electronic devices.

Electronic device
Initialization of
circles by
tilting of the
0 of the vertical circle to
eyeglasses.
zenith or at nadir.

«H» : angle horizontal

«0 set » : mise
at zero (HZ)

V: vertical angle

HOLD put in
memory of reading
horizontal.
"R/L": meaning of
graduation of the limbus

THE PLANIMETRY
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Linear measures.
a-Direct measurement of distances.

The most common measuring instrument for length in surveying is the meter (20, 30, 50 m). Its
usage is simple, provided that certain specific rules are followed:

good placement of the "zero" on the station axis, the angle of the wall…
well-unwound ribbon (not twisted)
correct tape tension
ribbon well horizontal (especially in suspended mode)
Enjoy reading on the ribbon (avoid inversions).

When the distance to be measured is greater than the length of the tape, it will be beneficial to
to materialize one or more intermediate points. It will be imperative that these points are on the alignment
formed by the extreme points (this operation is generally done by eye).

When the ground is uneven (steep slope > 5%), in addition to the tape, we will use a plumb.
of axis (plumb line). The measurement principle, called cultation, is that of measurements in 'stairs'.
The difficulties we will encounter will be:

horizontal alignment of the ribbon

maintaining good alignment
good marking of the point thanks to the plumb line.

As a general rule, it will be beneficial for this type of measurement to proceed from the highest point downwards.
lowest point.

The advances made in electronics and computer science over the past 10 years have revolutionized the
topometry field. The surveyor operator now has, to measure distances,
of instruments equipped with a transmitter-receiver operating on the principle of wave emission,
where it is reflected after reaching a set of prisms. The result is obtained in a few
seconds and is displayed on an internal screen of the instrument.

All measurements taken can be directly recorded in an electronic notebook that

will be connected to a computer upon arrival at the office.

b-Indirect measurements of distances.

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 The instruments (theodolites) with, in addition to the reticle, 'stadimetric' wires, allow
to obtain horizontal distances through a simple manipulation.

Aim at the target, then record the two readings on target L1 and L2 as well as the vertical angle Z.

high stadimetric wire

g
low stadimetric wire

g = L1 - L2

L1

L2

Dh=100 . G . sin² Z

Note:

A trick can simplify calculations: aim at the target with a horizontal sight (in the case of the level), one
thus directly obtaining the horizontal distance Dh=100.

c - Precision of the methods.

Flat ribbon chain links +/- 2 to 3 cm for 100 m

Ribbon chains in rough terrain +/- 5 to 10 cm for 100 m

Thanks to the threads of the reticle +/-10 cm at 60 m

To the distance meter +/- a few mm for 100 m

d - Special case: Measurement of the length of an inaccessible building.

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Terrain :
- install a baseS1 S2
- measure the horizontal distance S1 S2
- note the angle readings from S1 on A, B, S2
S2surA,B,S1

Calculations:
- triangles resolution by the sine analogy: a / sin A = b / sin B = c / sin C
by the formula c² = a² + b² - [Link] C

2) Alignments.

To solve alignment issues, there is a very simple tool called the optical square.
which is coupled either to a plumb line or to a weighted rod. Its principle is based on the use of
mirrors, one giving an image coming from the left at an angle of 00.00 degrees, the other an image
coming from the right (case of the square with double prisms). Often, a small "window" allows
to observe straight ahead (direct sight); it is through the overlapping of images that one obtains
the desired points.

Three uses are then possible:

Materialize one point on a

given alignment:

While parking approximately on

the alignment between two known points, we
move forward or we retreat until the
images of the 2 milestones seen in the prism
overlapping.

2. To lift, at a point of an alignment

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 a perpendicular à this
alignment:

By parking at the known point, we observe

in the prism the milestone placed at the other point
of alignment. Aiming through the
window, we move the milestone to the point
search until it is in the
extension of the image of the milestone seen in the
prism.

3. Lower, on a alignment, the

perpendicular from an external point:

This case is a combination of the two.

previous. We first align on the point
known for obtaining the overlay of
images. We then move on to this
alignment until the 3thpoint
known is located in the extension of the 2
other images.

Alignment with small obstacle (tree, car...)

Shift 1 to 1.50 m perpendicularly to the alignment.

Alignment with a large obstacle (building...):

Create any alignment, lower the perpendicular from J1 to this new alignment
measureJ1Hetd. InH1, raise a perpendicular calculated with THALES...

d / J1H = d / J1H1

Relief on alignment with:

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 With two operators, we will proceed by successive 'adjustments' to achieve the final alignment.

3) Planimetric surveying methods.

Raised only with ribbon:

- interesting for inaccessible areas with heavy equipment (for example, raised
of interior, of supplement
- One can make use of the extensions (Pgt) of buildings, walls, sidewalks, ...

Raised by abscissas and ordinates:

- is performed with the help of an optical square

- is used for survey supplements
- requests the establishment of an operational line.

Raised by radiation:

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 - operates from a well-chosen 'central' station using the theodolite for angles.
and a tape measure or a distance meter for the distances
- Certain important points may be "radiated" from two different stations.
They will thus be controlled (= double points).

Lifted by polygonal path: this consists of

- install a set of ground stations connected to each other in order to

to be able to carry out, from these stations, the survey of the area.
- take the measurements of this 'polygon' which can be of two types:

4) Special cases.
It can happen that during a survey some points are invisible (masked by a tree, ...).

Lifting two points on an alignment

law and measure with tape

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 Raise 1 or 2 points on the extension
(pgt) and make a supplementary survey
at the ribbon.
The 'invisible' angle will be positioned during
from bipolar coordinates report.

Conclusion: control checks will need to be taken, especially between important points (façades,
points doubles,…).

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 METHODOLOGY OF SURVEY

1) Reconnaissance :
Choose the number and location of the stations that can be either stakes + nails (at ground level),
there are spits. Essential identification sketches.

Establish the site sketch which is the primary graphical document that must be created on the field.
as soon as the area has been recognized.
It is a scale-less, proportionate drawing, intended to provide a fairly accurate representation of the terrain. It is inscribed with
all the numbers of the stations, the points, as well as the necessary information for the implementation of the plan. It must
be clear, complete, easy to interpret.

2) Left:
For path measurements, double turn at an angle, and back and forth in distance (control
immediate on the ground.

Several methods can be used, with priority given to radiation (at each point of detail,
taking readings of horizontal angles and horizontal distances.

Note these elements in the field notebook, which is the handwritten document supplementing the sketch.
terrain. It contains all the elements measured from the bases or stations, elements that we note in the
appropriate columns:

Control discount prices. This operation should not be neglected as it often allows for recovery and
To eliminate mistakes in measurements, it also helps to reduce errors.

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 POLAR COORDINATES
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

There are different ways to locate a point in the plane:

identification of all points in relation to others (too many dimensions...)

Location in relation to two particular points = bipolar (poor accuracy...)
location by a coordinate system:

a - rectangular coordinate system (locating the point by X coordinate and

Y coordinate.
b - polar coordinate system (locating the point relative to another)
distance and direction.

When relying on geodetic points determined in (X, Y) during topographic measurements

Lambert, we will speak of 'general system' or Lambert system; otherwise we will talk about 'system'
particular" independent system.

Deposits.
If the origin direction is parallel to the Y-axis of the rectangular coordinate system of the
projection, the directions are called 'bearing' (notation G or Gis).
The deposit is the angle between the axis of the and a straight line.

2) Transmission of deposit.

During radiation:

Gis S1B = Gis S1S2+αB

Gis S1A = Gis S1S2+αA400

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During a journey:

with topographic angle to the right

Gis S2S3= Gis S1S2+ (200 - αS2)

with topographic angle from the left

Gis S3S4Gis S2S3+ (αS3200

The Vo.
LeVOouGO is the 'zero deposit' of the device's edge.

VO = Gis S1S2Lect S2

On aura ensuite pour chaque point de détail :

Gis S1P1= VO + Lect P1

For greater accuracy, a VO will be calculated.

means from several stations (and several
deposits) :

Gis S1P1= VOmy+ Lect P1

Note: To simplify calculations, during a survey, starting from known stations in (X,Y), "display" a
lecture :

equal to 0.000 g. We will then directly obtain the VO.

equal to the deposit. We will then obtain, on the details, a reading corresponding to their
deposit.

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4) Transformation of polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.

known elements sought elements

A(X,Y) B(X,Y)
GAB
DHAB

Formulas:

XB = XA + ( AB sin G )
(∆X)

YB = YA + ( AB cos G )
(∆Y)

Example: an operator has carried out the surveying of an area of land. According to these documents, you are asked to
calculate the Lambert coordinates of the different points.

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 Calculation of KV

Calculation of deposits

Calculating coordinates (X, Y)

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5) Transformation of rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates.

known elements sought elements

A(X,Y) DHAB
B(X,Y) GAB

Formulas:
G’
( DHAB(x)² = ∆X² + ∆Y²

tg G '= ∆X
∆Y

with∆X = XB - XA
∆Y = YB - YA

Example: during a project for an overpass, the positions of the piles and the station are indicated by
their rectangular coordinates. You are asked to calculate the implementation elements (azimuths,
distances) from the station.

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 Calculation of deposits - distances

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 POINTS REPORT

After the field operations and calculations, the final phase is the graphical report. The drawing is done
in principle on paper (the minute), then we make a tracing (preferably polyester) in order to make some
prints.

Semi points.

For a manual report, the lifting methods determine the reporting methods.

Lever by intersections:

The base being "stuck" on the support, we determine the location of the points by the arcs of circles.
Practice for the as-built plans where there is already a background plan.

Lever by abscissas and ordinates:

mark all the abscissas on the operation line (in cumulative)

Draw all the perpendiculars using a ruler and mark the ordinates.

Lever by polar coordinates: report using a protractor and a kutch.

Once the station is "peeled" on the support, transfer it to the directions, report the distances to scale.
the directions.

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 It is preferable (more precise) to calculate the rectangular coordinates of the points and to carry out a
report on the previously gridded support (by convention grid 10 x 10)
cm).

2) Interpretation.
Perform graphical checks based on either distances calculated between known points in (X, Y), or
with the measurements taken on site (facade lengths...).

Each detail having been reported, connect the points together using the field sketch.
the representation of certain characteristic details of the terrain (calvary, power lines...), we use some
conventional signs (see points report annex).

3) Dressing.
Every plan includes certain standards regarding presentation:

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Example: using the coordinates of the stations and the survey notebook, create a scale drawing of 1/500.
attached site sketch.

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 ANNEX: Conventional signs

(2 solid stone floors)

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 The planar implantation

It is the operation that will consist, based on a dimensioned plan and implantation elements, in determining on the
ground the correct position of points, alignments, buildings, structures...

In any case, we will have to use bases that can be a station, an alignment, a canvas.
the stations...

It is ultimately the inverse operation of that of the lift.

1) Implementation of straight alignments.

to the eye: we will avoid placing ourselves too close to a marker, as it may obstruct a field of vision.
important. (precision +/- 5 cm).

at the optical square: it is enough to look for the right superposition of the images of the markers in the
mirrors, advancing or retreating perpendicular to the alignment. (accuracy +/- 3 cm).

At the theodolite: one will station one end of the alignment, and aim at the other by locking.
good the Hz movement and we will align the intermediate points with the V movement of the instrument.
(accuracy < 1 cm).

In the 'L.A.S.E.R.' section: it is actually a light beam whose impact is visible or audible.
which allows for a clear representation of an alignment, a horizontal, vertical, or oblique plane, or
another given slope (accuracy < 5 mm).

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2) Implantation of perpendicular alignments.

on the ribbon: method 3/4/5.

method of the mediatrix

with the optical square: in this case, starting from the determined point on the alignment, the aim is to obtain the
superposition of the 3 images in the 2 mirrors and the skylight.

at the theodolite: we will take reference from the origin point of the alignment, we will check the reading.
(+ 200 gr) at the other endpoint by tilting the scope, then we will 'open' an angle of
Lorigin+ 100 g.

3) Drawing a parallel.

at the optical square: lower point P on the alignment in H and measure d, then raise a
perpendicular in H and reported.

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 at the ribbon: position the middle of AP(O), then from a point of the alignment draw a line from
such that BO = OP'.

with obstacle: create a new alignment AC, then, on AC lower the perpendiculars from
points of the alignment AB, finally reconstruct this figure ABC symmetrically.

4) Implantation of a given angle.

tangent method: with a tape measure and an optical square. A round elevation is measured on
the alignment, we construct the perpendicular to the alignment at P, we calculate the distance and then it
Report on the perpendicular and we obtain M.

at the theodolite: reference taken on the alignment, then display of the reading corresponding to
the requested angle α (attention 400 - if toα the left of the alignment).

5) Implantation of points.

by abscissas and ordinates: each point to be implanted is known in relation to a base under and
coordinate form.

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 by radiation: it is the most classical method. Each point is known by 2 elements:
angular (with respect to a reference)
linear ( [Link]-pt).

by distances: in relation to two known stations, 2 heights are sufficient to locate a point. The
ribbon is enough for this method.

by angles: always in relation to two stations, using 2 theodolites, we proceed by

intersection of two lines.

6) Special case: embedding curves.

on the ribbon: this is the case for small curvature radii (sidewalks, green spaces....). It is enough to
find the center of the circle that is located at the intersection of the two perpendiculars to the points of
tangency or at the intersection of the two parallel alignments.

with the connecting square: this process comes from a mathematical rule stating that
At every point of the curve, the points T and T' are seen from the same angle. We position ourselves at T and incline.
the mirrors are positioned to see AetT'. This angle is maintained throughout the operation.

Connecting elbow

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 by rectangular coordinates on the chord:

Hypothesis:

Reasoning:

Then, resolution of right triangles to obtain the angle and the distance from P.

by polar coordinates on the chord:

Set up the pointPau middle of

TT'et adopt different values for
α(10, 20, 30 g) then calculate the
coordinates of the points of the curve:

X = R . sinα
Y = R . ( cosβ - sinα)

with β =100− θ
2

Implant the points of the curve on PT’

from Pet symmetrically on PT
leave P.

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 method of quarters

After drawing the main string, we calculate

the main arrow f1, with f1 = R (1 - cosα).

Then, we can draw with this point of the circle

2 new strings. Each new arrow
is obtained by taking a quarter of the previous one, and
and so on... (precision +/- 3 to 4 cm).

Conclusion: regardless of the method used, we will always end up with control scores. We will be able to
to control either:

- by known sides (calculated in advance)

- by the establishment of another station
- by applying another method
- by a statement.

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 Indirect Level

The determination of the altitudes of detail points can be done in two ways:
either with a level (direct leveling)
- whether with a theodolite, we are then talking about indirect leveling.

This type of leveling is done with a theodolite, an instrument that has inside its telescope, in
more than the 2 lines of the reticle, other lines called 'stadiametric lines' allowing readings on a target.

1) Principle.
To know the altitude of the targeted point, it will be necessary:

to measure the height between the axis of the dowels and the ground station (ht).
to record the readings corresponding to the wires (l1, L, l2).
- to note the vertical angle of the sighting (z).

Alt M = Alt S + ht + (100 . g . sin z . cos z) - L

(∆h )

Control:

On the ground, after taking readings on the target, check

what :

L= l1+l2
2

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Note: Tips can simplify calculations:

aim at the target a vertical angle equal to AIt100 gr S + ht – L

M = AIt
- aim at the target in such a way that Lvautht AIt M = Alt S + (100 . g . sin Z . cos Z)

Accuracy: +/-3 to 5 cm for 60.00 m.

Examples:

ht = 1,635 ht = 1,635
l1 = 3,657 l1 = 1.876
L = 3,454 ∆h = L = 1.635 ∆h =
l2 = 3,251 Alt M = l2 = 1.394 Alt M =
z = 85,892 gr z = 126.357 g
Alt S = 230,050 Alt S = 230,050

2) Special case.
Measurement of the height of a building whose highest point is inaccessible.

Stations

Terrain: - note the vertical angle Z1

note the vertical angle Z2

measure the horizontal distance between the building

Calculations: - either solve the right triangles IHA and IHB by determining α and β knowing that the vertical angle
of a horizontal = 100.00 gr.

either calculate directly: HA = Dh . cotg Z1

HB = Dh . cotg Z2

knowing the altitude of St: AIt A = AIt St + ht + ( Dh . cotg Z1)

AIt B = AIt St + ht + ( Dh . cotg Z2)

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 DIRECT LEVELING

An altimetric framework has been established in French territory, which constitutes the N.G.F. (General Leveling)
from France). There are about 400,000 reference points; all these points having been measured in altitude with respect to
a common origin (determined by the tide gauge of Marseille). It is from these points that a
Attachment is possible, and it allows obtaining the altitude of any detail point.
Levelling is therefore the set of operations that allows for determining the differences in height and the
altitudes.

The equipment.

A level is used for this work, placed on its tripod, which can provide through its telescope a
horizontal aiming after a quick and simple manipulation:

Level 'manual': leveling the bubble of a spherical level and then leveling the bubble of the level.
torique.
Automatic level: only adjusting the bubble of a spherical level.

The leveling staff is generally made of wood or aluminum and is 4 m long, foldable or telescopic.
The numbers written are in meters and decimeters, we need to count the centimeters and estimate the
millimeters.

On the ground: a quick check of the reading of the leveling wire (L) can be performed.

L= l1+l2 (deviation ± 2 mm)

2

I1 =
lectures L = contrôle =
l2 =

Spherical level
(verticality of the target)

For several years, so-called "L.A.S.E.R." levels (Light Amplified Stimulated

Emission of Radiation). The beam produced by the instrument is either visible (range ± 50 m) or invisible but
received by a sensor (range ±200 m).

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 Niveau automatique : description

ROTATING LASER and sensor

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Principle.

The elevation difference is calculated by convention using the formula: dn = LAR - LAV

If the altitude of Rest is known, we will obtain that of Mpar: Alt M = Alt R + dn

!!!If the level turns out to be misaligned (sights not horizontal), it is imperative to respect equality of
Carried. The error produced in the readings on the target will cancel out.

3) Methods.
a- The simplest one is that of radiation.

The instrument is placed in a central area by

report to the points whose altitude is sought.

The first reading is done on the target placed on the

known point at altitude. Then, without changing the
level of place, you just need to read the rating on each
point.

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The calculations are simple:

- calculation of the sighting plane altitude (blue level): Alt PV = Alt R + Read R

- calculation of the altitudes of the points: Alt 1 = Alt PV - Reading 1 ...

Exemple :

b- The other method is that of the pathway.

It involves proceeding step by step to connect the points together.

There are three types of pathways:

guided path closure and control on

another point known in
altitude.

closed pathway closure and control over Toad

the starting point.
(point
intermediate
during a
pathways on the antenna: no control possible! pathway

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 The calculations are "chained": - calculation of the distance between each point: dn = LAR - LAV

- calculation of the altitudes of the points: AIt a = Alt R + dn [R-a]

Alt b = Alt a + dn [a-b]

We will always check that: ΣLAR-SLAV= (Σdn+ +Σdn- )

Example:

4) Compensation.
Whether in a closed pathway or in a guided pathway, a closure control is
indispensable. It consists of comparing the measured total to the actual total (given value, aIt NGF...).

Perform the following operations:

1) Calculation of the closure gap: ef = measured dn - actual dn

2) Comparison with tolerance: T=4.6n

4.6 includes all the reading discrepancies that can be made on the target, etn = number of stations, which is 2 readings.

NB: sief > T: redo the leveling

sief < T: compensation possible

3) Calculation of total compensation: Ct = - ef

The Gap Type defines the compensation method ET=1.7n proportionately

either distributed across each point (<ET) or at distances (>ET)

5) Distribution, with their signs, of partial compensations on the dsn

6) Calculation of compensated definitive altitudes.

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Example:

5) Special case.

Height point:
(looked in reverse)

dn = Lar - Lav

Place a dot at a
given quote :

We are looking to place a line.

at the level of 87.500 m.

-Alt PV=

we carry above the PV

the necessary change:
app=

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We are looking to place a stake at the elevation of 87.500 m.

-Alt PV=

-appoint (app) =

Use of leveling instruments.

The altimetric staking can be ensured with an instrument (level, laser), however, if the precision
if strictness is not required, the use of leveling instruments is common (adjustment of the form layer in the
road works for example).

The leveling instruments are basic tools used to draw slope lines between two
Given points. They include a target and two levelers, painted in red and white.

To place point C on the slope line of points A and B, we adjust stake C to the desired height.
so that the visual ray passes over the upper part of the 2 spirit levels and along the median line of the target. When
It is at the right height, the operator sees only red parts, the white of the lower part of the...
The mire being obscured, it is then said that points A, B, and C are located "at full milestone."

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 LEVEL CURVES

1) Representation of the relief.

To represent the relief of a terrain on a map, there are several methods.

One can simply place points on the map with their elevation levels (altitudes).
On old maps (e.g., topographical maps), hatching or shading was used through
grayed tones (blending technique).

But the most common method now is that of contour lines.

A contour line is the imaginary line connecting all consecutive points of the same altitude on a
horizontal plan.

Principle:
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Note:

A round rating is often chosen.

We observe that the steeper the slope, the tighter the curves, and vice versa.

The equidistance (Eq) is the elevation difference (dn) between 2 curves.

The choice of equidistance depends on the scale of the plan (10 m, 20 m...).

The equidistance is constant.

The distance (Ec) is the horizontal distance (dh) between 2 curves.

The spacing is variable.

The slope of the land is the ratio between the equidistance and the spacing.
Eq
Ρ= What= dn
is this

Interpolating curves (dashed lines) are sometimes represented to highlight any abnormal local anomaly.
or to better show the details of a nipple or a bowl.

Sometimes, certain curves are represented with a thicker line; these are the master curves (all the
10, 20, 30 m,...).

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 Master curve

Intercalary curve

3) Characteristic lines of the terrain.

Thalweg line (water convergence line)

formed by 2 slopes.

Ridge line or crest line (line of

water separation formed by 2 slopes.

Nipple or peak (elevated part of a line)

of a ridge).

Col (bottom point of a ridge line).

3) Methods of altimetry surveying.

a-Grid: this method is mainly used in flat terrain. Points are arranged regularly.
in a rectangular grid of 10, 20, 30 m side. If the points are perfectly
Determined in position relative to the limits of the land, it is enough to level them.

Curve fitting: Although it is a lengthy method, it offers the greatest accuracy in

the translation in terms of contour lines. Indeed, points of the same altitude are raised directly
on the field by setting a marker on the target.

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c - Point semis: since the emergence of electronic tachymeters allowing for direct measurement of ∆h,
This is the most commonly used method. By radiation, it is necessary to lift all the characteristic points of the terrain.
(slope variation, valley, ridge...). In summary, the terrain should be considered as a polyhedron for which all measurements are taken.
vertices as well as some points on the edges and on the faces.

4) Construction of curves.
The first thing to determine is the direction of the steepest slope of the land for an interpolation.
Correct points belonging to the curves. Interpolating means searching between 2 points of any altitude.
the point or points that have a round altitude. All methods involve the principle of proportions of a
one way or another.
One of the simple methods is to use the THALES theorem in a triangle that we create.
(the slope must be constant between 2 chosen points).

Sometimes we may need to determine the altitude of a point located between 2 contour lines.

they are cut.

THALES

d∆h=
d + d' Eq
∆h= d ×Eq
d + d'
Alt A = 100 + ∆h

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