Effect of motion of nucleus

we know that as no external force is acting on a nucleus- electron system, hence the centre of
mass of the nucleus electron system must remain at rest.
 X-Rays
When highly energetic electrons are made to strike a metal target, electromagnetic radiation comes out. A large part of this radiation has
wavelength of the order of 0.1 nm (≈ 1 Å) and is known as X-ray.
X-ray was discovered by the German physicist W C Roentgen in 1895.
Roentgen discovered X–ray. While performing experiment on electric discharge tube Roentgen observed that when
pressure inside the tube is 10–3 evacuated tube + mm of Hg and applied potential is kept 25kV then some unknown
radiation are emitted by anode. These are known as X–ray.

100A"
-
0 .
1A >
-

==
200 1 , 24 , 000
=

124e
=2
12400
= =
Continuous spectrum of X–ray
When high speed electron collides from the atom of target and passes close to the [Link] is coulomb attractive force due to this
electron is deaccelerated i.e. energy is decreased. The loss of energy during deacceleration is emitted in the form of X–rays. X–ray
produced in this way are called Braking or Bremstralung radiation the German word for “braking radiation.” and form continuous
spectrum. In continuous spectrum of X–ray all the wavelength of X–ray are present but below a minimum value of wavelength there is
no X–ray. It is called cut off or threshold or minimum wavelength of X–ray. The minimum wavelength depends on applied potential.

High
energy
Characteristic Spectrum of X–ray
When highly accelerated electron strikes with the atom of target then it knockout the electron of orbit, due to this a vacancy is created.
To fill this vacancy electron jumps from higher energy level and electromagnetic radiation are emitted which form characteristic spectrum
of X–ray. Whose wavelength depends on nature of target and not on applied potential.

e-
·
X-ray
~ phot on
V

N
Mc
V M D
= mk =
Emc + DELk

VV

=
ba< K Y
X

v + v
=
Ekp >
Es) Ep EL
COOLIDGE Method to produce X-Rays

V
O

Coolidge tube

Experimentally it is observed that only 1% or 2% kinetic energy of electron beam is used to produce
X–ray. Rest of energy is wasted in form of heat.
Characteristics of target
(a) Must have high atomic number to produce hard X–rays.
(b) High melting point to withstand high temperature produced.
(c) High thermal conductivity to remove the heat produced
(d) Tantalum, platinum, molybdenum and tungsten serve as target materials

Control of intensity
The intensity of X–ray depends on number of electrons striking the target and number of electron depend on temperature of filament
which can be controlled by filament current. Thus intensity of X–ray depends on current flowing through filament.

Control of Penetrating Power

Thus the intensity of X–ray depends on current flowing through filament while penetrating power
depends on applied potential difference
For cut off wavelength

In

Ka
p

m
Scutoa
,
3
,
An X-ray tube is operated at 20 kV and the current through the tube is 0.5 mA. Find (a) the number of electrons hitting the target per
second, (b) the energy falling on the target per second as the kinetic energy of the electrons and (c) the cutoff wavelength of the X-rays
emitted.
(a) i
= +

0 3m) = ne
99
.

=
(B) P = iv

= 0 . 5x103 x 20x103
= 10 W

(C) ↓
=400 = 0 .
6
An X-ray tube operates at 20 kV. A particular electron loses 5% of its kinetic energy to emit an X-ray photon at the first collision. Find
the wavelength corresponding to this photon.
For Characteristic X–rays
When electron fills the vacancy in lower orbit some X-ray photons of certain wavelengths emmited
therefore we can see spikes (increment in no. of photons) in intensity diagram .
-

62pm =
62x1012m = 62x1512x1010
d =

xido
In hydrogen atom we had chosen E = 0 when the electron was knocked out. The ground state of hydrogen atom then had an energy of
–13.6 eV. Here the convention is opposite and the energy in the ground state is chosen to be zero. The energy in the ionized state is
then positive. As the electrons in K shell are most tightly bound, maximum energy is to be given to the atom to knock out an electron
from the K shell. That is why, in figure the energy level of the atom with a vacancy in the K shell is shown highest.
MOSELEY’S LAW
Moseley’s experiments (1913–1914) on characteristic X-rays played a very important role in developing the concept of atomic number.
Moseley measured the frequencies of characteristic X-rays from a large number of elements and plotted the square root of the frequency
against its position number in the periodic table. He discovered that the plot is very close to a straight line.
 z
m (]
b
+
= z -

>
- =

b =
screening constant

5 = R(z-b
[ -] b= 1 for K-series

b= 7 4 . for L-series
Rch(z b)2
(nz]
- n -

-
DE 13 6 ev
[2 ne2 (- b>
.

=
·

>
- nt =
Rch(2- b) [e 22] -

F Rc(z b]2(m2 iz] rc(n2 n)

=
a = -

f = a(z -
b)

JF = Ja(z b) -

If <(2 -
b)
 ⑧
O
5

O
O

⑧ ⑧

O
O
 z = 31
, dk = do

dxx
3
z 2 =
=

5 = r(2 - b2
[]
I

= 2= 41
BRAGG’S LAW
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelengths and may be diffracted by suitable diffracting centres. However, the diffraction
effects are appreciable only when the diffracting apertures are of the order of the wavelength, i.e., of the order of 0.1 nm. This is almost
the size of an atom and it is difficult to construct slits with such small gaps so that X-rays can be appreciably diffracted.
In solid crystals, atoms are arranged in fairly regular pattern with interatomic gaps of the order of 0.1 nm.

The structure of a solid can be viewed as a series of parallel planes of atoms separated by a distance d . Suppose, an X-ray beam is
incident on a solid, making an angle θ with the planes of the atoms. These X-rays are diffracted by different atoms and the diffracted
rays interfere. In certain directions, the interference is constructive and we obtain strong reflected X-rays. The analysis shows that
there will be a strong reflected X-ray beam only if maxima
2dsino = nd
V T

J
T
O
,0 6
O & O 6 &

14
o
d

%sing
O W
8 6

Using

6 ⑧
&
⑧ 6

o =
with surface
 -
ux
I = To e
ABSORPTION OF X–RAY

/
=o
S
I
-
C D
R

S
S