AP Physics 2

Unit 3: Circuits

Section 3.1 – Electric Current………………………………….……………………..……...…50

Section 3.2 – Resistance & Power……………………………………………..……...……..…52

Section 3.3 – Compound DC Circuits……………………………………………....…….….....55

Section 3.4 – Batteries & Meters …..……….………………………………………....…….…63

Section 3.5 – Kirchhoff’s Laws…….……….………………………………………...……..…65

Section 3.6 – Capacitors in Circuits …..……….…………………………………………….…68

49
AP Physics 2 Unit 3: Circuits
3.1 Electric Current
Focus Question: When will charge flow through a conductor?

 Current is charge moving through a conductor.

When there is potential difference in a conductor, positive charge (current) will flow from an area with
high potential to low potential. Current is created by apply a potential difference across a conducting
wire:

*By convention, current is defined at the direction positive charge flows. Electrons flow opposite
conventional current.
 Current is equal to the rate at which charge moves through the conductor:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑄
𝐼= →𝐼=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
*units: Amperes (A)

Example A: A hollow conducting sphere is initially uncharged, with an electric potential of zero. A wire is
connected to the sphere.

a) What must be true of the potential at the other end of the wire for the sphere to become charged?
b) A current of 5 mA flows to the sphere. How many electrons pass a point on the wire in one second?
Do the electrons move towards or away from the sphere?
c) How long does it take the sphere to obtain a charge of 2 C?

a) The other end of the wire must be at non-zero potential. Current will only flow through the wire if
there is a potential difference between the two ends.

b) One ampere is one coulomb per second. A single electron has charge equal to the elementary charge,
e= 1.6𝑥10 𝐶.
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 5𝑥10 𝑥1𝑠𝑥 = 3.1𝑥10 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
.
Current is flowing into the sphere. Conventional current is the motion of positive charge. Since positive
charge flows into the sphere, that means negatively charged electrons are flowing away from the sphere.

c) 1 𝐴 = 1
time = =

𝑡= = 400 𝑠
/

50
  DC current – current that flows in only direction. Current for most electrical devices is AC current,
which constantly switches direction. This unit is concerned with DC current only.
 Transient current – Temporary current that flows and then stops (such as when something is grounded).
 Continous current – current that flows in a continous loop to a power supply that provides electromotive
force that supplies a constant electric potential difference to charge passing through it.

A circuit is a way for electric potential (also called voltage) to be transferred from a source of electric potential
energy to a load (something that uses electrical energy to function). The source and load are connected through
a conducting wire that carries electrons. The electrons carry electrical potential with them.

 Current flows down a “voltage hill”.

Current from high electrical potential (positive charge) to low electrical potential (negative charge).
 In a solid conductor, current is due to the flow of free electrons. As
electrons are negatively charged, they are attracted to flow towards
positive charge. However, in circuit analysis, we pretend that current is
due to the flow of positive charge in the opposite direction of electron
movement. This is called conventional current.
 (Conventional) Current flows from positive charge to negative charge in a conductor.

+high potential -low potential

*Potential (measured in volts) is electric potential energy per unit charge.

 Charge flows from a source to a load in a circuit. A load is an object that uses electrical energy such as a
motor or light. Charge arrives at a load with high energy and leaves with lower energy.

 After leaving a source, current circulates to a load. The load consumes electric potential but not
current.

Circuit Schematics

•Conductor •Switch •Battery

•LED •Resistor •Voltmeter/Ammeter

51
AP Physics 2 Unit 3: Circuits
3.2 Resistance & Power
Focus Question: What affects the rate of current in a circuit?

Resistance

 The rate of charge flow through a wire is based on the magnitude of a potential difference, the length of
the conductor, the cross-sectional area and the material is it is passing through:

∆𝑉𝐴
𝐼=
𝜌𝐿
A – cross section area of wire (a greater cross section allows more current)
L – length of wire (a longer wire resists current flow).
𝜌 −resistivity, a property of the conductor and its temperature.
*A perfect conductor has zero resistivity. A perfect insulator has infinite resistivity.
*Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity

 The entire quantity is known at resistance, which measures a wires ability to resist current flow.
Resistance is higher for longer resistances, and resistors with smaller cross sectional areas. Resistance is
also based on the resistivity of the material. Resistance also increases with temperature.

 Resistors - Electrons collide with metal nuclei when

traveling through a conductor. These collisions to
transfer electrical energy to heat. This is analogous to
friction in mechanical motion. Resistors impede current
flow by converting electric energy (voltage) to heat.

*Resistance of a theoretically perfect conductor is zero. *Resistance of a perfect inductor would be

infinite. Resistors are required in circuits to slow down current. Electrons moving too fast will cause a
circuit to become very hot and can burn out circuit elements.

 Resistivity and Resistance - Charge drifts in the direction of the force on it. The charge makes inelastic
collisions with stationary particles and transfer energy to them. Thus, conductors get warmer as current
flows.
𝝆𝑳
𝑹= *𝑑𝑅 =
𝑨
R - resistance
L – length of conductor
A – cross sectional area of conductor

 Substituting R into the relationship between potential difference and

current gives Ohm’s Law:
𝐼𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿
∆𝑉 = → =𝑅
𝐴 𝐴
→ ∆𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
52
Ohmic vs. Nonohmic Circuits

Ohm’s Law is not a fundamental law of nature as it does not apply to all circuits.

 A circuit is ohmic if voltage varies directly (linearly) with current (circuit obeys Ohm’s Laws).

 A circuit is nonohmic if voltage does not vary directly with current.

Example A: The graph at right shows a plot of voltage versus current for a
filament lamp. The 12 V dashed line shows the voltage setting of the power
source.

a) Why does the graph not obey Ohm’s Law?

The voltage does not vary linearly with the current through the filament.

b) Why would the filament not obey Ohm’s Law?

As the current increases, the resistance of the circuit changes (likely due to the increasing temperature).

c) How would you determine the resistance of the filament for point P on the graph?

Find the slope at point P. (V=IR is of the same form as y=mx)

Power
 Power is the rate at which a potential difference does work on a charge:
As charge moves through an element as shown. The electric field does work on the charge as it passes
through: 𝑾 = 𝑽𝒒
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑽𝒒 𝒒
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = = = 𝑽( )
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕 𝒕
 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
 Using Ohm’s Law with the power equation above, you can also derive the following two expressions for
power:
𝑽𝟐
 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹
 How Power is used in a circuit:

53
Example B: Why do lightbulbs fail often fail immediately after power is connected?

When a bulb is first turned on, it is at a low temperature, so it has its minimum resistance at this time. When
voltage is first supplied, there is a sudden spike in current and power. As a bulb heats up while it’s turned on, so
its resistance rises, so the power delivered to it decreases, making it less likely to burn out.

Example C: A circuit provides 20 A at 220 V. How many 60 W lightbulbs can be powered?

The total power supplied is: 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = (220 𝑉)(20 𝐴) = 4400 𝑊

The number of lightbulbs this power supplied can power is: = 73.3
73 light bulbs can be powered.

The lightbulbs can be wired in series or parallel to get the same power. In series, all the lightbulbs will get the
same current, but each will get less volts. If the bulbs are all in the parallel, they will all get the full voltage of
the battery, but the current will be slower so they will get those volts at a faster rate.
Bulbs and other devices are usually wired in parallel. If 73 lightbulbs are in series and one burns out, the entire
series will have a short-circuit and all light-bulbs will stop working. In parallel, if one light bulb burns out, the
branch with that bulb only will short-circuit, and the other bulbs will still work.

Example C: An electric heater is power by applying 50 V to a wire of 8 Ω.

a) Find the power supplied to the wire.
b) How much air could it heat (specific heat of air = 1 ) from 10 ℃ to 25 ℃ in one hour?
℃
c) How much would it cost to run the heater for 4 hours if electricity cost $.10 per kilowatt hour?

( )
a) 𝑃 = = = 312.5 𝑊
( Ω)

b) Power is the rate of energy transfer. The energy delivered to the air is the power multiplied by time:
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 312.5 (1 ℎ𝑟) = 1.13𝑥10 𝐽
This energy is transferred to the air in the form of heat, Q, so the mass can be found form the specific
heat formula:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇 → 𝑚 =
∆
.
→𝑚= = 75000 𝑘𝑔
( )( ℃ ℃)
℃

c) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = (312.5 𝑊)( )(4 ℎ𝑟)( $0.10 ) = $0.13

54
AP Physics 2 Unit 3: Circuits
3.3 Compound DC Circuits
Focus Question: How do circuit elements act in series and parallel?

Resistors in Series
 2 circuit elements are in series when current must flow through both. Since both
are in the same current flow, they have the same current. In series, potential is
dropped in both resistors.

𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
→ 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) = 𝐼𝑅
→ 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
*Req = Equivalent resistance.
Resistors in Parallel
 When a circuit splits into parallel, current splits up since the charges can only go down
one path. The current that splits carries the same potential.

𝐼 +𝐼 =𝐼 → 𝐼 +𝐼 =

→ + =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
→ = +
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

 When 2 resistors are in parallel, the over resistance goes down, so current increases. Adding a resistor in
paralllel adds another path for current, so more current is able to flow, even though the new path also
has resistance.
 Current splits proportionally down branches, with more current takign the path with less resistance. By
V=IR, resistance and current are inversely with constant voltage. If one branch has no resistance
whatsover, all the current will go down that branch.
 Power is shared in both and parallel. In parallel, the same potential is carried to each branch, but the rate
which potential is carried (current) is decreased.

Circuit Networks
 Combination Series/Parallel Circuits - In the circuit shown, R 1 and
R2 are in series since current from the battery has to pass through
both resistors. However, R3 and R4 are not in series since the current
flowing through one is equal to the current in the other. After passes
through R2, current can either take the path through R 3 or the path
through R4, making these two resistors in parallel. The majority of
the current will go through the resistor with least resistance.

55
Example A: Appreciate the circuit on the right.

a) Find the current in the circuit.

b) Find the voltage drop across each resistor.

All 3 resistors are in series, so they all have the same current. The
current is found by dividing the total voltage by the equivalent
resistance. Once this current is found, it can be used to find the
voltage across each resistor using Ohm’s Law.

*The voltages (3V+18V+9V) add up the battery voltage of 30 V, satisfying Kirchoff’s Loop Law.

Circuit Analysis (Current leaves the long side of a

battery) – The battery supplies 30 V to the current
leaving it. When the current gets to the 6Ω resistor, it
uses up 18V, leaving it with 12 V. Current is never
used up so it still have 3 A. The current then loses 9V
in the 3Ω resistor, leaving it with 3V. The 1Ω uses up
the remaining voltage, leaving the current with no
potential.

*Whenever current goes back into the battery, it will

not have any voltage left. All voltage must be used up
in a circuit*

When the current goes back through the battery, it will gain the voltage back and the circuit will repeat.
Batteries do eventually run out of potential over time. (a 9V will eventually have 8V, then 7V,etc.)

*Voltage is potential difference. Therefore, the battery has positive voltage (since it adds voltage) and the
resistors have negative voltage (since they take volts away).

Example B: The circuit to the right has 3 elements in parallel.

a) Find the current that leaves the battery.

b) Find the current in each resistor.

All 3 resistors are in parallel, so they all have the same potential (voltage). The total current can be found by
dividing the battery voltage by the equivalent current. To find the current in each resistor, divide the battery
voltage by each resistance since each resistor gets the full battery voltage.

56
The currents (10A+16A+8A) add up to the total circuit current, satisfying Kirchoff’s Current Law.

Circuit Analysis – Current leaves the battery with 34 A

and carries 80 V. Whenever current splits, each branch
gets all the volts that the current was carrying before
splitting (the rate of flow, current will be different).
When the currents meet up again, they once again
combine, so there is still 34 A going back to the battery
with 0 V (since all 3 branches used up their voltages in
the resistors). Again, the battery will supply 80 V to the
current again, and the circuit will continue in the great
circle of life.

Example C: Determine the current in the 2.0 Ω resistor and the

potential difference across the two marked points, A and B, when
the switch is a) open and b) closed.

a) With the switch open, all current through the 2.0 Ω resistor.
Current splits between the 4.0 Ω in parallel. The equivalent
resistance of the two 4.0 Ω resistors is 2 Ω ( + ).

When the switch is open, the total resistance is 4.0 Ω and the total current is 3.0 A (12/4). The potential
difference across the 2.0 Ω resistor is 2.0 × 3.0 = 6.0 V. The potential difference between A and B is therefore 6
Vas well.

b) When the switch is closed, no current flows through the 2.0 Ω resistor, since all the current takes the path
through the switch, which has no resistance. No voltage is dropped across the switch as there is no resistance,
making the potential difference zero.
57
Example D: Solve the circuit shown.

To solve a circuit find the equivalent circuit and then work

backwards. The equivalent circuit is a circuit with one source
and one resistor (that has the equivalent resistance of the
circuit.

To find the equivalent, combine elements that are in series

and parallel.

Step 1: Combine the 2 Ω and 10 Ω in series.

2 Ω + 10 Ω = 12

Step 2: Combine the two 12 Ω in parellel.

1
=6Ω
+
*When two identical resistors are in parellel, the equivalent resistance is half
the resistance.

Step 3 (Equivalent Circuit): Combine the two 8 Ω and 6 Ω in series.

8 Ω + 6 Ω = 14 Ω
The current leaving the battery (equivalent current can now be
found):
35
𝐼= = 2.5 𝐴
14

Work backwards through the steps to the original circuit. If elements are in series when going backwards, they
have the same current. If elements are in parallel, they have the same voltage drop. Ohm’s Law can be used to
find the other quantity.

Back to Step 2: The 6 Ω and 8 Ω were combined in series, so keep

the current when splitting back up. The voltage in each can be
found using Ohm’s Law:
𝑉 = (2.5)(8) = 20 𝑉
𝑉 = (2.5)(6) = 15 𝑉

58
Back to Step 1: The two 12 Ω resistors were
combined in series, so keep the voltage of 15 V
across the 6 Ω they were combined into. The current
in each is found by Ohm’s Law:
15
𝐼 = = 1.25 𝐴
12

Back to Equivalent Circuit: The 2 Ω and 10 Ω were combined in series, so keep the current when splitting back
up. The voltage in each can be found using Ohm’s Law:
𝑉 = (1.25)(2) = 2.5 𝑉
𝑉 = (1.25)(10) = 12.5 𝑉

The final solved circuit:

Example E: Solve the circuit shown on the right.

To solve a circuit (find the voltage and current

across each element), find the equivalent circuit
and then work backwards. The equivalent circuit is
a circuit with one source and one resistor (that has
the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

To find the equivalent, combine elements that are

in series and parallel. You cannot do this in one
step, so you need to combine things step by step.

Step 1

-The 2Ω and 8Ω resistors combine in series (2+8)

-The 12Ω, 15Ω, and 10Ω resistors combine in parallel

(1/(1/12+1/15+1/10))

59
Step 2

-The 40Ω and 10Ω resistors combine in parallel (1/(1/40+1/10))

-The 4Ω and 6Ω resistors combine in series (4+6)

Step 3

-The 7Ω and 8Ω resistors combine in series (7+8)

Step 4

-The 15Ω and 10Ω resistors combine in parallel (1/(1/15+1/10))

Step 5 (Equivalent Circuit)

-The 3Ω and 6Ω resistors combine in series

-The equivalent current is 9Ω

-The battery current is 5 A.

Much like Bilbo Baggins, we have to go there and back again, so we now go backwards through the
steps to the original circuit. If items are in series when going backwards, they have the same current. If
they are in parallel, they have the same voltage drop. We can then use ohm’s law to find the other
quantity for each element.

Back to Step 4
-The 3Ω and 6Ω were in series so they both have the same current, 5A.

*The voltages are found using Ohm’s Law (V=IR). The calculated
voltages (30+15) add up to 45 V, satisfying Kirchoff’s Loop Law.

60
Back to Step 3

-The 6Ω resistor splits in parallel, so the two resistors have the same
voltage, 30 V.

*The current is found using Ohm’s Law (I=V/R). The calculate currents
(2+3) add up to 5A, satisfying Kirchoff’s Node Law.

Back to Step 2
-The 15Ω resistor splits in series, so its current is the same for the 7Ω
and 8Ω resistors it splits into.

Back to Step 1

-The 8Ω resistor splits in parallel, so the two resistors have the

same voltage, 16V, that the 8Ω resistor had.

- The 10Ω resistor splits in series, so its current is the same for
the 4Ω and 6Ω resistors it splits into.

Back to Original Circuit (Answer)

-The 4Ω resistor splits in parallel, the resistors it splits into all have 12 V.

-The 10Ω resistor splits in series, so its current is kept for call elements.

61
Example D: Three lightbulbs that are rated 60.0 W, 120 V lightbulbs are
connected across a 120 V power source, as shown.

a) Find the power delivered to each lightbulb.

b) Rank the brightness of the 3 bulbs.
c) The bulb labeled R3 goes out. What happens to the brightness of
the other two bulbs?
d) The bulb labeled R1 goes out. What happens to the brightness of the other two bulbs?

a) Since the power and voltage for each lightbulb are given, the resistance of each bulb can be solved for:
( )
𝑃= →𝑅= = = 240 Ω → 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 240 Ω

To solve for the power, the circuit must be solved to get quantities for each bulb that can be used:

b) Lightbulbs with more power are brighter.

Power of R1 > (Power of R2 = Power of R3)

c) Bulb 2 gets brighter since it no longer has to split current with Bulb 3 and now gets all the battery
current. Bulb 1 gets dimmer. Getting rid of Bulb 3 gets rid of a parallel branch, making the equivalent
resistance go up. Thus the battery current goes down. Since Bulb 1 gets all the battery current regardless,
it gets less bright.

d) If R1 goes out, there is no longer a complete loop of current, and current ceases to flow. Thus, the
other two light bulbs go out.

62
AP Physics 2 Unit 3: Circuits
3.4 Kirchoff’s Laws
Focus Question: How are charge and energy conserved in circuits?

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

 The sum of the voltages around a loop in a circuit is zero.
 Kirchoff’s Loop rule is due to conservaiton of energy. Potential difference
from a source is positive (it provides potential) and potential difference
from a load is negative (since it uses the potential).

Kirchoff’s Node Rule

 The current going a node equals the current coming a node.
 Kirchoff’s node rule is from conservation of charge.

Example A: Determinet the 3 unknown currents in the circuit shown using

Kirchoff’s Rules.

There are 3 unknowns, so 3 equations need to be set up using Kirchoff’s

laws using loops or nodes in the circuit.

 Node Rule node c:

𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 → 𝐼 − 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 0 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)

 Loop Rue for the loop shown through the 5 Ω resistor:

0 = +6 − 4𝐼 − 5𝐼

→ 4𝐼 + 5𝐼 = 6 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

 Loop Rue for the loop shown through the 4 Ω resistor:

0 = +6 − 4𝐼 − 9𝐼

→ 4𝐼 + 9𝐼 = 6 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

*A graphing calculator can solve this system*

Solving the 3 variable system using a solver: 𝑰𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝑨, 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝑨, 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝑨
63
Example B: Calulate each current shown.
Since there are 3 unknown currents, 3 equations are needed.

Loop 1: The 12 volt battery supplies voltage, the loop flows

through the two resistors in the way current was defined so the
convention al signs are kept:
0 = +12 − 2𝐼 − 4𝐼
→ 4𝐼 + 2𝐼 = 12 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)

Loops 2: Current flows “backwards” through the 2 Ω resistor and

12 V battery, so the signs for these two are flipped.
0 = +6 − 1𝐼 + 2𝐼 − 12
→ 2𝐼 − 𝐼 = 6 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

Node: I2 and I3 both go into the node and I1 comes out of the node.
𝐼 +𝐼 =𝐼
→ −𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3)

Solving the equations using a solver: 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑨, 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟔 𝑨, 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟗 𝑨

*I3 being negative means current flows opposite of the direction defined in the diagram.

*The direction of the current for problems with multiple batteries cannot be known until solving for the actual
currents, so the currents were given an arbitrary direction at the start of the problem. If the answer for a current
is negative, that means the actual direction of the current is opposite the defined direction.

Example C: Calulate each current shown.

Loop 1: Current flows “backwards” through the 3 V battery the

lower 20 Ω resistor, so the signs are flipped for these.
0 = +6 − 3 + 20𝐼 − 20𝐼
→ 20𝐼 − 20𝐼 = 3 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)

Loops 2: Just as in loop 1 current flows “backwards” through

branch that contains the 3 V battery the 20 Ω resistor.
0 = +8 − 3 + 20𝐼 − 15𝐼
→ −20𝐼 + 15𝐼 = 5 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

Node: By the directions defined in the diagram, all 3 currents flow

into the node.
𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 0 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3)

Solving the equations using a solver: 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝑨, 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝑨, 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝑨

*I2 being negative means current flows opposite of the direction defined in the diagram.

64
AP Physics 2 Unit 3: Circuits
3.5 Batteries & Meters
Focus Question: How do non-ideal batteries and meters affect the rest of the circuit?

Measuring Current - Ammeters have very low resistance and thus are connected in series with the element
whose current is to be measured.

Since the ammeter is in series with the resistor, it will measure the same current as
the resistor.

An ideal ammeter has a very small (negligible) resistance, so it will not drop any
volts or alter the current and will therefore not affect the circuit by it being there.

*A non-ideal ammeter will have resistor, and therefore decrease the current lower
than what it should be.

Measuring Voltage – Voltmeters have very high resistance and thus an accurate voltage reading would not be
recorded if it was connected in series with the element with which current is to
be measured. Thus, voltmeters are connected in parallel with the element that
voltage is to be measured in.

Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the resistor, it will measure the same
voltage.

An ideal voltmeter has a very high (infinite) resistance, so only a negligible

amount of current will flow through it.

Example A: The circuit on the right is used to measue the current and voltage for a
resistor.
a) Suppose the ammeter is ideal and the voltmeter is non-ideal. Is the ammeter
reading an overestimate, underestimate or neither?
a) Suppose the voltmeter is ideal and the ammet is non-ideal. Is the
volmeter reading an overestimate, underestimate or neither?

a) If the voltmeter it is non-ideal, then it allows signficant current to run through it. The ammeter will
measure all the battery current, but not all of this current will run through the resistor since much of it
will go through the non-ideal voltmeter. This makes the ammeter reading an overestimate.
*Negligible current runs through an ideal voltmeter.

b) If the ammeter is non-ideal, then it drops voltage. The voltage reading itself is the same voltage as the
resistor, it is neither an underestimater or overestimate. However, the actual voltage through the resistor
is less than it would be with an ideal ammeter.
*An ideal ammeter has no resistance, so it does not drop any voltage.

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Batteries
 A battery is the most common source of positive potential difference in a circuit. In a battery, current
flows from low potential to high potential due to an electromotive force. The electromotive force of a
circuit is the work done per unit charge.

𝑊
𝜀=
𝑞

*Power sources convert one form of energy to electrical energy. A battery uses chemical energy.

Internal Resistance

 An ideal battery no resistance, and all the battery emf is delivered to the circuit. A real battery has an
internal resistance.
When a battery as an internal resistance, treat the internal resistance as
a small resistor inside the battery.
𝜀 − voltage provided by battery emf
r – internal resistance of battery
I – current through battery
The battery’s emf supplies 𝜀 volts. The internal resistance drops an
amount of voltage given to 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑟. The effective voltage leaving the battery is then: 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟.
 Effective Voltage of non-ideal (real) battey: 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
 Effective Voltage of ideal battery: : 𝑉 = 𝜀

Example B: The graph shown gives the potential difference across the terminals of a battery as a function of
the battery current. Determine the internal resistance of the battery.

Comparing 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 to 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, a graph of V vs. I will

have a slope of -r and a y-intercept of 𝜀.
The y-intercept of the graph is 11 mV, so 𝜀 = 11 𝑚𝑉.
The slope of the line is -.25, so r = 0.25 Ω.

Example C: When two resistors, each of resistance 4.0 Ω, are connected in parallel with a battery, the current
leaving the battery is 3.0 A. When the same two resistors are connected in
series with the battery, the total current in the circuit is 1.4 A. Calculate the
battery emf and internal resistance.

When there is a resistance in the circuit, the relationship between the circuit
resistance and internal resistance is:
0 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 − 𝐼𝑅
→ 𝜀 = 𝐼(𝑟 + 𝑅)

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When the two 4 Ω resistors are in series, the circuit resistance is R=8 Ω. When they are in parallel, the circuit
resistance is R = 2 Ω. The following two equations can then be constructed using 𝜀 = 𝐼(𝑟 + 𝑅):
𝜀 = 3(𝑟 + 2)
𝜀 = 1.4(𝑟 + 8)
→ 3(𝑟 + 2) = 1.4(𝑟 + 1.8) → 𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 Ω
The battery emf can be found using either equation: 𝜀 = 3(3.25 + 2) = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝑽

Circuits with Multiple Batteries

 Batteries in the same direction in series:
Two batteries with their terminal aligned in the same direction will
combined their electromotive force, leading to a greater total voltage
supplied
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉

 Batteries in opposite direction in series:

If two batteries face in opposite directions, current will flow in the

direction of the battery with greater emf. The battery with lower emf will
take away from the total voltage:

𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 where 𝑉 > 𝑉

If the smaller battery facing the other direction is a rechargable cell, this will charge the battery.

Example D: Calculate the current in each circuit below.

Apply Kirchoff’s Voltage (Loop) Law for each circuit:

a) 0 = +12 − 10𝐼 + 6 − 8𝐼 = 0 → 𝐼 = 1 𝐴
b) 0 = +12 − 10𝐼 − 6 − 8𝐼 = 0 → 𝐼 = 0.33 𝐴

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AP Physics 2 Unit 3: Circuits
3.6 Capacitors in Circuits
Focus Question: How do capacitors behavior in a circuit while charging, discharging, and at steady state?

 Capacitor Schematic Symbol –

 When a capacitor is placed in a circuit, the gap between the plates acts a short circuit. Charge flows form
the battery until both plates are fully charged.

 Electrons leaves the negative terminal of the battery and flow to the upper plate of the capacitor. The
electrons on the upper plate of the capacitor repel electrons from the lower plate, so those electrons flow
through to the battery.
 Current flows through a circuit with a capacitor at a decreasing rate until the capacitor is fully charged.
A fully charge capacitor acts as a short circuit.

Capacitors in Parallel
 When capacitors are placed in parallel, they each reached the same potential difference. They share the
charge coming from the battery.
𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝑉. The charges add, 𝑄 = 𝑄 + 𝑄 .
𝐶 𝑉 =𝑄 𝑉+𝑄 𝑉
Capacitors in parallel act like a single capacitor whose capacitance is the sum
of the capacitances.
𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶

Example A: Two capacitors of capacitance 12 𝜇F and 4.0 𝜇F are connected in parallel to a source of potential
difference of 10 V. Calculate the charge on each capacitor.

Since the capacitors are in parallel they both have the full battery voltage across
their plates, so the charge can be calculated using Q=CV for each.
𝑄 = (12 𝑥10 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 1.2𝑥10 𝐶
𝑄 = (4 𝑥10 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 4.0𝑥10 𝐶
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Capacitors in Series
 When capacitors are placed in series, the charge on each is the same since current in series is constant:.
The voltages add: 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 → = +
Finding the equivalent capacitance of capacitors in series works the same as
finding the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel.
1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
Example B: Two capacitors are connected as shown. The capacitors have
capacitances of 𝐶 = 3 𝐹 and 𝐶 = 6𝐹. The first capacitor is fully charged by a 10
V battery and then disconnected from the battery. Afterwards, the switch shown is
closed and the first capacitor is allowed to discharge into the second capacitor.
Find the final charge on each capacitor.

When a capacitor discharges to another capacitor, it will give some of its charge of the other capacitor, with the
total amount of charge being conserved. Charge flows when there is a potential difference, so charge will flow
between the capacitors until both capacitors have the same potential difference across their plates.

The total charge once 𝐶 is charged is 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉 = (3 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 𝟑𝟔 𝑪

At equilibrium the voltage on each is equal.

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 =𝑉 → = → = → 𝑄 = 2𝑄
𝐶 𝐶 3𝐹 6𝐹
The 36 C charge is split between the capacitors due to conservation of charge:
𝑄 + 𝑄 = 36 𝐶
Solving the system: 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑪, 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 𝑪

Example C: The capacitors in the circuit all have a capacitance of 12 𝐹. Find the charge and potential
difference for each capacitor.

Problems with multiple capacitors can be solved by finding the equivalent

circuit by combing elements in series or parallel and then working backwards.

Step 1: Combine B and C in parallel

𝐶 = 12 𝐹 + 12 𝐹 = 24 𝐹

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Step 2: Combine A with the equivalent 24 F capacitor in series. This is the
equivalent circuit.
1 1 1
= + →𝐶 =8𝐹
𝐶 12 24
The total charge is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (8 𝐹)(12 𝑉) = 96 𝐶

Back to Step 1: The two capacitors that were split were in series, so they both
have the same 96 C since current is the same in series. The voltage on each is
found using Q=CV:
96 𝐶
𝑉 = =8𝑉
12 𝐹
96 𝐶
𝑉 = =4𝑉
24 𝐹

Back to original circuit: A is already solve. B and C split into parallel, so

the 4 V for each is kept since potential is constant in parallel, the charge on
each is then:
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (12 𝐹)(4 𝑉) = 48 𝐶

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟗𝟔 𝑪, 𝑸𝑩 = 𝟒𝟖 𝑪, 𝑸𝑪 = 𝟒𝟖 𝑪

Charging RC Circuit
The circuit shown has an ideal battery of emf V, a capiticator of capatiance C in series with a resistor of
resistance R, and a switch. At time t = 0, the switch is switch to position B:
 Charge on capacitor, Q(t): Initially, the capacitor is
uncharged. Over time, charge builds up on the capacitor.
The rate of the charge accumulating decreases over time as
the rate of current decreases. The capacitor has a certain
maximum charge (CV) it can hold, which it will approach
asympotically.
 Current through resistor, I(t): As the capacitor gets charged
at a decreasing rate, the rate of charge flow, which is
current, the current will decrease. Once the capacitor is
fully charged, it acts as a short circuit, so current will stop.
 Potential across capacitor, 𝑉 (𝑡): As more charge builds up on the capacitor, will have a potential
difference across its oppositely charged plates. Once the capacitor is fully charge, it will have a constant
potential equal to the battery voltage that went to the capactior.
*When a capacitor is not in series with the battery, it has the steady state voltage of the element its in
parellel with*

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  Potential across resistor, 𝑉 (𝑡): Initially, the capacitor acts a normal wire as charge flows normally, so
there will be potential (V=IR) across the resistor. As the current decreases to zero, so will the voltage
across the resistor.

 Graphs for Charging RC Circuit

Discharging RC Circuit

The circuit is fully charged in position A. After a long the switch is

moved to position B.
When the switch is moved to B, the circuit is no longer connected to the
battery. The potential difference across the capacitor plates will no long
be countered by the battered, so the capacitor’s charge will flow away
from the capacitor. The charge will flow through in the opposite direction
it was charged and act as a temporary “battery” for that closed loop it is
in with the resistor. Over time, the rate of charge flow will decrease
asympotically.

 Charge on capacitor, Q(t): As the capacitor discharges, charge leaves the plate. When the capacitor is
fully discharged, the circuit neutralizes so there is no net charge.
 Current through resistor, I(t): As the rate of charge flowing from the plate decreases, the current
decreases.
 Potential across capacitor, 𝑉 (𝑡): The capacito has a potential difference due to the opposing charges on
its plate. As the charges leave the plates, the potential difference decreases.
 Potential across resistor, 𝑉 (𝑡): Since the capacitor acts as the power supply for the resistor when it
discharged, the voltage across the resistor will be equal in magnitude to the potential across the
capacitor.
 Graphs for Discharging RC Circuit

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Example D: In the circuit shown, V = 10 V, R = 10 Ω, and C =
10 𝜇𝐹.

a) The switch is initially open. Calculate the initial current

through both resistors if the switch is closed.
b) After a long time, the switch is opened. Calculate the current
through both resistors just after the switch is opened.

a) When the switch is initially opened, the capacitor will behave like a wire with no resistance, so no
current with flow through the resistor R. All current will flow through 2R to the capacitor:
Current in 2R: 𝐼 = = 0.5 𝐴 Current in R = 0
Ω

b) When the capacitor is fully charged and the switch is opened, the
capacitor will discharge. Current only flows through a full circuit, so
current will only flow through the complete loop contain resistor R and
both plates of the capacitor. The capacitor will have the full battery
voltage of 10 V across its plates.
Current in 2R=0 Current in R: 𝐼 = = 1.0 𝐴
Ω

Example E: Consider the circuit shown from the moment current starts
flowing.

a) Calculate the initial current in the 20 Ω resistor.

b) Calculate the current in the 20 Ω resistor after a long time.
c) If 𝐶 = 2.0 𝑚𝐹, calculate the charge stored in the capacitor.

a) Initially, charge goes to the capacitor until its plates are charged.
While the capacitor is charging, current flows to the capacitor and “skips” the 30 Ω resistor since the
capacitor has no resistance. The circuit at time t = 0 is from the battery, through the 20 Ω resistor,
through the capacitor, and then through the 10 Ω resistor.
𝐼= =4𝐴
Ω Ω

b) After a long time, no current will flow through the capacitor, so complete circuit will not be from the
battery and then through all 3 resistors:
𝐼= =2𝐴
Ω Ω Ω

c) The capacitor is in parallel with the 30 Ω resistor, so it only gets the voltage that is across the 30 Ω
resistor at steady state. The voltage across the 30 Ω resistor at steady state is:
Ω
𝑉 = (12 𝑉) = 6 𝑉
Ω Ω Ω
The charge on the capacitor using Q=CV is:
𝑄 = (6 𝑉)(2𝑥10 𝐹) = .012 𝐶

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