UNIT – II Buildings, Green Buildings &

Building Services and Transportation

 General idea about Super structure
and Sub structure
 Generally, there are two major components of a building
project which are substructure and superstructure.

 The substructure is the part of the building that is built below the
ground level.

 Superstructure is the part of the structure that is constructed

above the ground level.
General idea about Super structure
and Sub structure
 General idea about Superstructure

 The superstructure is the portion of a building which is

constructed above the ground level

 It serves the purpose of structure’s intended use.

 It includes columns, beams, slab upwards including all finishes,

door and window schedules, flooring, roofing, lintels, and
parapets.
 General idea about Substructure
 The substructure is the lower part of a building which is
constructed below the ground level.

 The function of substructure is the transfer of loads from the

superstructure to the underlying soil.

 The substructure is in direct contact with supporting soil.

Substructure involves footing and plinth of a building.
General idea about Super structure and
Sub structure
 Basic Components of Building
Structure
 The basic components of a building structure are
the foundation, floors, walls, beams, columns,
roof, stair, etc.

 These elements serve the purpose of supporting,

enclosing and protecting the building structure.
Basic Components of Building
Structure
Basic Components Of A Building Structure

12 basic components a building structure.

1. Roof 8. Walls
2. Parapet 9. Floor
3. Lintels 10. Stairs
4. Beams
11. Plinth Beam
5. Columns
12. Foundation
6. Slabs
13. Plinth
7. Damp proof course (DPC)
 Basic Components of Building
1. Roof
 The roof forms the topmost component of a building structure.
 It covers the top face of the building.
 Roofs can be either flat or sloped based on the location and weather conditions of the area.

2. Parapet
 Parapets are short walls extended above the roof slab.
 Parapets are installed for flat roofs.
 It acts as a safety wall for people using the roof.

2. Lintels
 Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc.
 These structures support the weight of the wall coming over the opening.
 Lintels are constructed by reinforced cement concrete.
 Lintels can be either constructed from concrete or from bricks.
 Basic Components of Building
4. Beams and slabs
 Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building.
 For a single storey building, the top slab forms the roof.
 In case of a multi-storey building, the beam transfers the load coming from the floor above the slab
which is in turn transferred to the columns.
 Beams and slabs are constructed by reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C).

5. Columns
 Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level.
 Columns can be of two types: Architectural columns and structural columns.
 Architectural columns are constructed to improve the building's aesthetics while a structural
column takes the load coming from the slab above and transfers safely to the foundation.
 Basic Components of Building
6. Damp Proof Course(DPC)
 DPC is a layer of waterproofing material applied on the basement level to prevent the rise of
surface water into the walls.
 The walls are constructed over the DPC.

7. Walls
 Walls are vertical elements which support the roof. It can be made from stones, bricks,
concrete blocks, etc.
 Walls provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine, rain etc.
 Openings are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to the building.

8. Floors
 The floor is the surface laid on the plinth level.
 Flooring can be done by a variety of materials like tiles, granites, marbles, concrete, etc.
 Before flooring, the ground has to be properly compacted and leveled.
 Basic Components of Building
9. Stairs
 A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure.
 The space occupied by a stair is called as the stairway.
 There are different types of stairs like a wooden stair, R.C.C stair etc.
10. Plinth Beam
 Plinth beam is a beam structure constructed either at or above the ground level to take up
the load of the wall coming over it.
11. Plinth
 The plinth is constructed above the ground level.
 It is a cement-mortar layer lying between the substructure and the superstructure.
12. Foundation
 The Foundation is a structural unit that uniformly distributes the load from the superstructure
to the underlying soil.
 This is the first structural unit to be constructed for any building construction.
 A good foundation prevents settlement of the building.
Load Path
• Different types of loads. The loads in
buildings and structures can be
classified as vertical loads, horizontal
loads and longitudinal loads. ...
• Dead load. ...
• Live load. ...
• Wind load. ...
• Snow load. ...
• Earthquake load. ...
• Load combination. ...
• Special loads.
Frame Action
Difference between Load bearing Structure &
Framed Structure in Structural System
 Difference between Load bearing Structure
& Framed Structure in Structural System

 In a framed structure, a framework or ‘skeleton’ of beams and columns is used to carry

different loads down the building to the foundations. The framework is usually of steel or
reinforced concrete, but in small (usually single-storey) structures, they may be of timber or
even aluminium.
 In the load bearing structure, the wall itself is load-bearing. These load-bearing walls are
usually built in masonry, but they can be of reinforced concrete too. Here the walls transmit
the loads to the foundations.
 The main difference between load bearing structure and framed structure is their members
who are responsible for bearing and transferring the load to the subsoil. In load-bearing
structure, load-bearing members are walls, while in a framed structure, load-bearing
members are beams and columns.
1. Definition

Load Bearing Structure

According to ‘Frederick S. Merritt’ (Author of Building Design and Construction Handbook),
load bearing structure is probably the oldest and commonest type of structure, and it is the
structure in which the loads of the roofs as well as lateral loads such as earthquake, wind
etc. are borne by walls, and through walls they are transferred to lower floor and eventually
to foundations. It is also known as wall bearing structure.
Framed Structure
A framed structure is a structure having the combination of structural components i.e. beam,
column and slab connected together to resist the gravity and different lateral loads. These
structures are generally used to overcome the large forces, moments developing due to the
applied loads. It is also known as beam column structure.
02. Components
Load Bearing Structure
Load bearing structure consists of heavy masonry walls of brick or stone that support the
entire structure.
Framed Structure
Framed structure consists of beam, column, and slab.

03. Load Transfer Path

Load Bearing Structure
In load bearing structure, vertical load transfer path is from slab/floor to walls and walls to
load bearing footing i.e. soil.
Framed Structure
In a framed structure, vertical load transfer path is from slab/floor to beams, beams to
columns and columns to load bearing footings and then to soil.
04. Height of Structure
Load Bearing Structure
Limited storey buildings can only be constructed. According to ‘SP 62’ (S & T, 1997,
Handbook on Building Construction Practices), For load-bearing construction, so far
buildings up to 6 storeys have gone up. In many countries, even 14 storeys have been built
only with masonry.
Framed Structure
Multi storey buildings of any heights can be constructed. These buildings are usually
designed for office, hotel, residential apartment and contain the means of vertical
circulation in the form of stairs and lifts occupying up to 20% of the floor area.
05. Resistant to Earthquake
Load Bearing Structure
Load bearing structures are poor resistant to earth quake, as they are constructed with
masonry units like stone, brick bonded together. (If it is not done correctly.) However, for low
rise buildings, it performs equally well. It needs meticulous designs and details.
Framed Structure
Framed structure is more rigid and more resistant to Earthquake as entire frame made of
column, beam and slabs act as one unit. However, the horizontal load path needs to be
clearly defined, designed and detailed.

06. Thickness of Wall

Load Bearing Structure
In load bearing walls are thicker.
Framed Structure
In framed structure all the walls are thinner.
07. Walls Construction
Load Bearing Structure
In load bearing system, beams and columns are not there. Hence walls have to be built first.
Framed Structure
In framed structures, walls are constructed after the frame is ready.

08. Carpet Area

Load Bearing Structure
In these types of structures less carpet area is available, as walls are thicker and hence carpet area
efficiency of planning is less.
Framed Structure
In these types of structures more carpet area is available, as walls are thinner.

09. Popularity
Load Bearing Structure
Rarely used form of construction at present. The load bearing walls are the earliest form of construction
known to the civilization.
Framed Structure
Most used form of construction.
10. Excavation Required
Load Bearing Structure
Excavation for this type of construction is more.
Framed Structure
Excavation for this type of construction is less for a similar building.

11. Labour Required

Load Bearing Structure
It is more labor intensive.
Framed Structure
It is less labor intensive, but it needs different skills.

12. Speed of Construction

Load Bearing Structure
Speed of construction is less.
Framed Structure
Speed of construction is more.
13. Material Required
Load Bearing Structure
It is more material intensive. Hence dead load is also more. It consumes less cement and
steel.
Framed Structure
It is less material intensive. It consumes more cement and steel.

14. Repair Cost

Load Bearing Structure
Cost of repair of load bearing structure is less.
Framed Structure
Cost of repair of framed structure is more.
15. Life of Structure
Load Bearing Structure
Life is not much affected even though some standards are not strictly followed.
Framed Structure
Life is reduced if not done with proper technique, and specifications i.e. codes are not
strictly followed.

16. Worker Required for Construction

Load Bearing Structure
Skilled as well as non-skilled worker can construct.
Framed Structure
Only skilled workers are needed for its construction.
17. Purpose/Function of Wall
Load Bearing Structure
In load bearing structure the purpose of wall is to bear load and hence almost all the walls are
load bearing apart from privacy and security. Limitation of wall over wall/ room over room is a
handicap. In load bearing structural system external & internal walls serve as a structural
element as well as serve the purpose of enclosure for protection from weather i.e. rain, sound,
heat, fire etc.
Framed Structure
Here the walls are for privacy and security. No limitation exists in form of taking walls over walls
and rooms over rooms. In framed structural system, external & internal walls serve only the
purpose of enclosures for creation of rooms and protection from weather.
18. Flexibility in Design
Load Bearing Structure
It is not flexible in design as you cannot remove/shift walls, hence effectiveness becomes less.
In load bearing structure, it is necessary to construct wall over wall, as walls are load bearing
components. Therefore, you cannot change the location of wall resulting in less flexibility in
use.
Framed Structure
It is flexible in design as you can shift location of walls. More functional architectural design is
possible. Flexible utilization of space. No necessity to construct walls on walls. Any wall can be
taken anywhere. Hence, flexibility in use.
19. Room Dimension
Load Bearing Structure
Room dimensions cannot be changed as walls have to be above walls only.
Framed Structure
Room dimension can be altered.

20. Feasibility of Cantilever Elements

Load Bearing Structure
Inclusion of Cantilever element is difficult task in this system. Also, it is permitted up to short span only.
Framed Structure
Cantilever elements can be easily provided in this system.

21. Span in Structure

Load Bearing Structure
In case of a load bearing structure, large span areas are not possible. Limitation of span i.e. room sizes.
Framed Structure
In case of a framed structure, large span areas are possible. No Limitation of span i.e. room sizes.
22. Cost Variation According to Foundation Depth
Load Bearing Structure
Foundation cost of Load Bearing is more than the Framed Structure if the depth of foundation
increases beyond 1.5m, and sometimes may become costlier than RCC framed structure.
Framed Structure
There is not much increase in cost with increase in depth of foundation.

23. Flexibility in Construction

Load Bearing Structure
Construction of a load bearing structure is cumbersome, particularly for earthquake resistant
structures.
Framed Structure
Construction of a framed structure is otherwise simple.

24. Materials for Construction

Load Bearing Structure
Load bearing walls can be from Brick, Stone, concrete block, etc.
Framed Structure
Frame can be of RCC frame, Steel, Wooden, etc.
25. Opening in Wall
Load Bearing Structure
Limitations for providing openings in walls, which will affect the light and ventilation in
room.
Framed Structure
Large openings in walls are possible.

26. Design Complexity

Load Bearing Structure
Design of load bearing structure is simple.
Framed Structure
Design of framed structure is not simple as compared to load bearing structure. You need
design skills and software tools.
27. Carpet Area Efficiency
Load Bearing Structure
If the land price is very high, then the saving resulting by way of less cost of construction will be useless as your
ultimate usage of carpet area i.e. usable area will be less. Resulting higher rate and cost of construction per
[Link]. of carpet area.
Framed Structure
As the carpet area efficiency is more, framed structure is not only efficient but also cost effective particularly
when the land prices in urban areas are huge; for example, if there is a saving in area by 5%, and even if one
spends Rs. 50.00 to 70.00 per [Link]. extra for the cost of construction for using RCC framed structure but, in such
case if the land prices are say Rs. 10,000.00 per [Link]. and FSI is 2 the saving in terms of cost of land would be
Rs. 500.00 to Rs. 1000.00 per [Link] depending upon FSI per [Link]. of carpet area built.

28. Alteration of Structural Element

Load Bearing Structure
Walls are the active structural elements and thus no change in it can be done at any time. Walls cannot be
altered.
Framed Structure
The frame is an active structural element and all components are important hence if any change in the
structural element is done it may endanger the safety of the entire building. However, walls can be altered.
Types Of Foundations
Types Of Foundations
 Types Of Foundations
1. Shallow Foundation
- When the depth of foundation 'D' is less or equal to the width 'B' it is called as Shallow
Foundation or open foundation i.e. D ≤ B.
- The main object of this type of foundation is to spread the load of the super structure over a
larger area to bring the pressure intensity within safe limits.
- These are generally used for all ordinary buildings which carry light or moderate loads and
where good bearing capacity is available at shallow depth/or reasonable depth. i.e. D ≤ 3 m.
- The various types of shallow foundations are as follows:
a. Wall footing (Strip):
-It consists of a continuous strip of footing to
spread the load of wall over a larger area. Hence,
it is also called spread footing.
 Types Of Foundations

- The width and depth of the strip depends upon the load on foundation and S.B.C. of the soil.
These footings can be either simple or stepped.

- Simple Wall Footing: In this case the width of footing is spread or enlarged by a single step or
offset from the wall width to distribute the load over wider area.

- This type is generally used for walls of garden or walls of temporary light structures.

- Stepped Footing for brick walls: It consists of number of courses in bricks, the lower course
is usually twice the width of the wall. The width is spread or enlarged by providing number of
steps on either side of the wall.

- This type of footing is widely used for buildings carrying light loads.
 Types Of Foundations

b. Column Footing
 Isolated Footing - It is also known as independent footing. It
is generally provided under a column to distribute the point or
concentrated load in the form of uniformly distributed load on
the soil below.
- This type of footing is also known as 'pad footing'. The shape
may be square, rectangular or circular in plan.
- These are commonly used for framed structures.
- As per the construction of the pad, they are known as flat and
sloped footings.
Isolated Footings
 Types Of Foundations

 Combined Footing - When two columns rest on a single footing, it is called as 'Combined
Footing'. They may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.

- Whatever be the shape, the Centre of Gravity of the supporting area should be in the line with
the resultant of the two column loads.

- This type of construction is found necessary when an external column: is situated near the
boundary line of the plot and it is not possible to project its footing in that direction.

- Sometimes the two columns may be very near to each other and it may so happen that footings
of these columns overlap each other. In that case both the columns are made to rest on a
combined footing.
Combined Footings
 Types Of Foundations

 Continuous Footing - When a number of columns are in a row and are closely spaced, then
footing of each column may intermingle with the other. In such case the footings of two or
three adjacent columns are made continuous to form a 'continuous footing’.

- This type of footing is adopted to sustain earth-quake disturbances and the unequal settlements
of the foundation.

 Cantilever Footing or Strap Footing - This is also called as eccentrically loaded footing. In
this case it may so happen that the extreme column of the building is very close to the
boundary so that the extreme column footing is likely to encroach upon the area outside the
boundary line of the plot.
Continuous Footings and Strapped / Cantilever Footings
 Types Of Foundations

- A strap or beam of sufficient strength is provided at the bottom connecting the boundary or
exterior column and the nearest interior column. The strap or beam thus provided supports the
weight of the exterior column.

- Beam acts as cantilever and hence the footing is called as cantilever footing.

c. Inverted Arch Foundation

- The inverted arch either in brick or stone, is built between the two walls at the base to transmit
the load over a wider area. This type of foundation is suitable on soft soil. The depth of
foundation is also reduced to a great extent.
 Types Of Foundations
c. Inverted Arch Foundation
-The inverted arch either in brick or stone, is built between the two walls at the base to transmit the load
over a wider area. This type of foundation is suitable on soft soil. The depth of foundation is also reduced
to a great extent.
 Types Of Foundations

d. Raft or Mat Foundation

- In case of grounds made up of soft clay or marshy site or in case of possibility of differential
settlement, the usual spread footing, will not be suitable.

- In such case, it is wiser on our part to excavate over the entire area of the building for its
foundation.

- An R.C.C. slab of suitable thickness is laid over the entire area of the building in the form of
raft or mat and is therefore known as raft or mat foundation.
Raft or Mat Footings
 Types Of Foundations

e. Grillage Foundation
- When a column carries heavy structural loads which are to be transferred to a soil of low
bearing capacity, grillage foundation is found to be very suitable.
- Adopted for the foundations of buildings like workshops, factories, town-halls, theatres, etc.
- The total load of the column is transmitted over a very large area by means of Rolled Steel Joist
(R.S.J.) or beams known as grillage beams which are provided in single or double tiers.
 Types Of Foundations

2. Deep Foundation

- When a stratum of good bearing capacity is not available at reasonable depth i.e. D>4B and
where other types of foundations such as grillage or raft foundations are not suitable, then deep
foundation must be adopted to attain a bearing stratum which will be suitable in all respect.

- They are generally provided when depth of foundation is more than 5 meters.

 Types of Deep Foundations: Important types of deep foundations are

a. Pile Foundation
b. Pier Foundation
c. Caisson.
 Types Of Foundations

a. Pile Foundation

- A pile is defined as a shaft of suitable diameter employed to transfer the loads deep into a soil
which may be capable of sustaining the load of the structure.

- A pile may be short or long. A pile is considered to be long when its length is more than 30 m.

- Piles are usually used for foundations of buildings, bridges, piers, docks, etc.

 Classification of piles

- Bearing Piles, Friction Piles, Sheet Piles, Anchor Piles, Fender Piles, Compact Piles.

- Timber Piles, Concrete Piles, Steel Piles, Composite Plies.

Types Of Foundations
 Types Of Foundations

b. Pier Foundation
- When a heavy building is to be constructed, in soft soil or sandy soil; over-laying hard bed at
reasonable depth, the pier foundations are used to transmit the load to the hard strata below.
- Piles are driven, while piers are constructed through excavation.
- In this method a vertical shaft is sunk and then filled with concrete.
 Types Of Foundations

b. Caisson Foundation

- The word caisson is a French word meaning a box.

- In civil engineering caisson is defined as a water-tight structure, made up of wood, steel,

R.C.C. constructed for foundations involving under water construction, i.e. for foundations of
piers, abutments of bridges, dock-structures, break-waters, lamp-houses etc.

- The caissons are classified as :

1. Box-caisson
2. Wells or open caisson
3. Pneumatic caisson
Types Of Foundations
UNIT – II Buildings, Green Buildings &
Building Services and Transportation
 INTRODUCTION
 Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable
building) expands and complements the building design concerns of
economy, utility, durability, and comfort.

A Green Building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy

efficiency, conserves natural resources, generates less waste and
provides healthier space for occupants as compared to conventional
buildings.
 OBJECTIVES OF GREEN BUILDING

 Low Impact
Minimize impact on natural environment
 Energy Efficient
Reduced Energy usage and Water usage
 Healthy
Provide occupants healthy Environment
 Minimize waste
Designed and constructed in a manner that minimizes
waste, pollution, and environmental degradation
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN
DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN BUILDING

Structuralefficiency
Energy efficiency
Water efficiency
Waste efficiency
 STRUCTURAL EFFICIENY

• Its main intensions is to minimize the

total environment impact associated
with all life- cycles.
• It has the largest impact on cost and
performance of building.
 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
 Thestrategy is to reduce the
operating energy use.

 Renewable energy through solar

power, wind power, hydro power
and biomass can significantly
reduce the environmental impact of
a building.
 WATER EFFICIENCY
 Reducing water
consumption and
protecting water quality
is the key objectives of
sustainable building.
 The use of non-sewage
and greywater for on-
site use such as site-
irrigation will minimize
demands on the local
aquifer.
 MATERIALS EFFICIENCY
 Buildings materials
should be renewable
materials , recycle and
friendly to the
environment.
 Examples are lumber
from forest, renewable
plant materials like
bamboo and straw and
other products that are
non-toxic, reusable,
etc.
 GREEN BUILDING RATING SYSTEM
 The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) provides LEED
ratings to structures in India.
 Each rating system divided into different level of certification is as
follows:

 ‘Certified’ to recognise best practices.

 ‘Silver’ to recognise outstanding performances.
 ‘Gold’ to recognise national excellence.
 ‘Platinum’ to recognise global leadership.
 GREEN BUILDING IN INDIA

 Solar Air Conditioning- Turbo Energy Limited, Chennai

 Green and Solar Reflectance Index roof: Hotel Leela Palace, New
Delhi
 Wind Hybrid Solar Charger: Suzlon One Earth, Pune
 High Performance Envelope: ITC Royal Gardenia, Bangalore
 Thermal Storage: TCS techno park and Grundfos Pumps, Chennai
HYBRID- HVAC SYSTEM: OLYMPIA TECH
PARK, CHENNAI
RADIANT COOLING TECHNOLOGY – INFOSYS,
POCHARAM CAMPUS,HYDERABAD
 Introduction to the Road

 Road is a route between two destinations,

which has been either paved or worked on
surface to enable transportation by way of
motorised and non-motorised carriages.

There are many advantages of road

transport in comparison to other means of
transport.
 Highway engineering

The branch of transportation

engineering which deals with design,
planning, construction & maintainace
of highway is known as ‘Highway
engineering’
 Classification of roads
A)According to traffic – based on traffic volume.

Types of roads vehicles per day

[Link] heavy traffic roads above 600
2. Heavy traffic roads – 600
3. Medium traffic roads 70 – 250
4. Light traffic roads below 70
B) According to importance.

1. Class I roads
2. Class II roads
3. Class III roads
C) Classification of roads by Nagpur
Road plan.
1. National highways (N.H.)
2. State highways (S.H.)
3. Major district roads (M.D.R.)
4. Arterial roads (O.D.R.)
D) According to location & function.

[Link] highways (N.H.)

[Link] highways (S.H.)
[Link] district roads (M.D.R.)
[Link] district roads (O.D.R.)
[Link] roads (V.R.)
 1. National highway (N.H.) The main highways running through
the length and breadth of India, joining major parts, capital of
states, foreign highways required for strategic movement for the
defence of India are known as ‘National highways’.
1. Amritsar – Ambala – Delhi road - NH1
2. Delhi – Agra – Kanpur – Calcutta road - NH2
3. Agra – Mumbai road – NH3
The responsibility of construction and maintenance – central
government.

 2. State highway (S.H.) The highways linking up with the

National highways, district head quarters and important cities in
states are known as ‘State highways’. The geometric design
specification and design speed for N.H. and S.H. are same. The
responsibility of construction and maintenance – state
government and central government gives grant for
development..
 3. Major District Roads (M. D. R.)
Major District Roads (M.D.R.) The important roads with a district connecting production
and markets places with each other or with the main highways are known as ‘Major
District Roads’. The responsibility of construction and maintenance – district authorities
and state government gives grant for development.

 4. Other District Roads (O. D. R.)

Other District Roads (O.D.R.) The roads connecting market centers, tahsil head
quarters, railway station in district known as other district roads. The design specification
is low as compare to M.D.R.
 5. Village Roads (V.R.) The roads connecting villages with each other or with nearest
road are known as ‘Village Roads’. These roads are very important from the rural area
development point of view. The responsibility of construction and maintenance – local
district authorities.
Typical Cross-section of Road