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Operating System -Compiled Notes - UNIT 1

operating system (SRM Institute of Science and Technology)

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USA20302J - Operating System

UNIT 1 - Syllabus

 Introduction Operating Systems (OS)

 Operating System overview
 Operating system as a resource manager
 Operations, Assembler, Compiler, loader, linker
 Evolution of Operating Systems:
 Serial processing and batch processing
 Batch: Simple, Multiprogramming
 Multiprocessor, Time Sharing, parallel systems
 Distributed (client-server, peer-to-peer),
 Real-Time (hard, soft)
 Cluster
 Network
 Structure of Operating systems: simple, layered, Kernel mode
 System Call Types
 Operating System services in GNU/Linux OS
 Communications Threads: Single thread, Multi-thread

Operating System (OS)-A preview…..

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 Operating system (OS) is associated with – input devices, output

devices, network devices, CPU

 It is a System software

 Manages Hardware, software and common programs

 OS is found in computers, super computers, servers, video game

consoles, mobile phones, televisions and much more….

 Commonly known OS - Windows, Macintosh, Linux, Unix, Android,

FreeBSD, Drupal, iOS, Windows Mobile, Watch OS, Web OS

Components that form the OS

 Process Management

 Interrupt Management

 Memory Management

 File System Management

 Device Management

 I/O Management

 Networking and Security

Introduction

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Definition

An Operating System is a program that controls the execution of application

programs and acts as an interface between applications/users and the
computer hardware.

Objectives

Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.

Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used in an

efficient manner.

Ability to evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to permit the

effective development, testing, and introduction of new system functions.

System

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process,

store and communicate.

The computer system uses the programs (functions) that are defined to
control and access the resources (memory, devices, processor cycles, etc.)

Why a computer needs an operating system?

OS is a very big program, which is an inclusive of lots of programs executed

by the processor.

OS mayrelinquishand regain the control on resources and it depends on the

processor to gain and relinquish control on resources.

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Operating System as a Resource Manager

 The operating system acts as a layer of abstraction between the

hardware and the software, allowing programs to run on a wide range
of different hardware configurations without need for specific
customization.
 The operating system provides a user interface (commands, Graphical
User Interfaces like buttons, check boxes and so on)
 It allowing users to interact with the computer and perform various
tasks.
 It provides a set of system calls and libraries that applications can use
to access the underlying hardware
 It performs common operations such as reading and writing files,
creating and managing processes, and allocating memory,
 It provides services like network connectivity, device connectivity, file
management, security and authorization management, users
management, process management
 The operating system effectively manages these resources and
performs the functions like,

 Keeps track of the status of each resource.

 Decides which job should get the resource and for how much
time.
 Allocates the resources to the job decided.
 Reclaims the resource after the job uses it for the allocated time.

Processor Management Functions

 Keeps track of the processor by recording whether the processor
is busy and if so who is using it.
 Decides which job should use the processor and for how much
time.
 Allocates processor to the job decided.
 Reclaims processor after use for the allotted time.

Memory Management Functions

 Keeps track of memory by recording which memory locations are
in use by which program and which memory locations are free.
 Decides which job should get memory and for how much time in
case of multi-programming.
 Allocates the memory space to the job.
 Reclaims memory after use to make it available to other jobs.

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Device Management Functions

 Keeps track of input/output devices and channels. That is, which
device is in use and by which job.
 Decides which job should use the device, and for how much time.
 Allocates the device to the job.
 Reclaims device after use.

File Management
 Keeps track of files, that is, which files are in use and by which
jobs.
 Decides which job should use the files and for what purpose
(read/write/append/execute).
 Allocates file for use.
 Reclaims file, which means, closes the file.

IO Management

 Input/output devices like mouse, keyboards, printers etc., are

external I/O devices and are different in their behavior and
characteristics.
 The operating system appropriately manages the input and
output operation of these devices and does CPU device
interconnection and interaction via Peripheral Control Interfaces

Security Management

 The reliability of an operating system is determined the better

security it provides.

 Operating systems use a firewall for security. A firewall is a

security system that monitors every activity happening in the
computer and blocks that activity in case of any threat.

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Operations, Assembler, Compiler, loader, linker

 Operation is an activity to control and coordinate the hardware and

software. The operations of an operating system include process
management, memory management, device management and file
management.
 An assembler is a program that converts the assembly language to
machine-level language.
 A compiler is a program that converts high-level language to assembly
language.
 A loader is a program responsible for loading the programs from
secondary memory to main memory for execution. It loads data,
machine instructions, related programs, libraries and other
dependencies for the execution
 A linker is a computer program that takes one or more object
files generated by a compiler and combines them into
one, executable program.

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Evolution of Operating System

Batch Operating System

 There is no direct interaction between user and computer.

 The user needs to prepare jobs and save offline mode to devices like
punch card or paper tape or magnetic tape and hand over to operators

 Jobs are grouped into batches ( similar jobs in one batch )

 the computer operator submits batches into the CPU to execute the
jobs one by one. CPUs start executing jobs, and when all jobs are
finished, the computer operator provides the output to the user.

Time-Sharing Operating System

 Operating system that allows us to connect many people located at

different locations to share and use a specific system at a single time.

 The time-sharing operating system is the logical extension of the

multiprogramming through which users can run multiple tasks
concurrently.

 provides each user his terminal for input or output that impacts the
program or processor currently running on the system.

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 It represents the CPU's time is shared between many

users/processesBackward Skip y kip 10s

Embedded Operating System

 The Embedded operating system is the specific purpose operating

system

 These operating systems are designed to work on dedicated devices

like automated teller machines (ATMs), airplane systems, refrigerators,
cars, air conditions, cameras, gaming consoles, washers, (and forms
the internet of things (IoT) environment)

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Multiprogramming Operating System

Two or more processes or programs are activated simultaneously to execute

the processes one after another by the same computer system.

When a program is in run mode and uses CPU, another program or file uses
I/O resources at the same time or waiting for another system resources to
become available. It improves the use of system resources

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Network Operating System

 It operates on a server

 And it uses network devices like a switch, router, or firewall to handle

data, applications and other network resources.

 It provides connectivity among the autonomous operating system,

called as a network operating system.

 Useful to share data, files, hardware devices and printer resources

among multiple computers to communicate with each other.

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Types of network operating system

Peer-to-peer network operating system

It allows the users to share the resources between two or more

computermachines using a LAN.

Client-Server network operating system

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 It allows the users to access resources, functions, and

applications through a common server or center hub of the
resources.
 The client workstation can access all resources that exist in the
central hub of the network.
 Multiple clients can access and share different types of the
resource over the network from different locations.

Distributed Operating system

 A distributed operating system provides an environment in which

multiple independent CPU or processor communicates with each other
through physically separate computational nodes.

 Each node contains specific software that communicates with the

global aggregate operating system.

 With the ease of a distributed system, the programmer or developer

can easily access any operating system and resource to execute the
computational tasks and achieve a common goal.

 It is the extension of a network operating system that facilitates a high

degree of connectivity to communicate with other users over the
network.

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Multiprocessing Operating System

 It is the type of operating system that refers to using two or more

central processing units (CPU) in a single computer system.

 These multiprocessor systems or parallel operating systems are used

to increase the computer system's efficiency.

 These operating system shares computer bus, clock, memory and

input or output device for concurrent execution of process or program
and resource management in the CPU.

Real-Time Operating System

 To provide services and data processing resources for applications in

which the time interval required to process & respond to input/output
should be so small without any delay real-time system.

 It requires an immediate response to complete tasks within a specified

time delay. Hence, a real-time operating system must be fast and
responsive for an embedded system, weapon system, robots, scientific
research & experiments and various real-time objects.

 Types of the real-time operating system:

Hard Real-Time System

 These types of OS are used with those required to complete critical

tasks within the defined time limit.

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 If the response time is high, it is not accepted by the system or may

face serious issues like a system failure.
 In a hard real-time system, the secondary storage is either limited or
missing, so these system stored data in the ROM.

Soft Real-Time System

 A soft real-time system is a less restrictive system that can accept

software and hardware resources delays
 a critical task prioritizes less important tasks, and that priority retains
active until completion of the task.
 Also, a time limit is set for a specific job, which enables short time
delays for further tasks that are acceptable.

Multi Core Systems

Multiprocessor systems are termed multi core that has CPU design to include
multiple computing cores on a single chip

Clustered Systems

These kinds of systems gather multiple CPUs together. Clustered systems

differ from the multiprocessor systems, where the clusters are composed of
two or more individual systems/nodes that are connected to form an
environment.

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Structures of the Operating System

Arranging the modules required by the various management services

through partitioning/layering

 Structuring Improves performance

 The procedure of structuring clear boundary limits and hence other
modules are not disturbed

1. Simple Structure

 No Partitions/Subsystems
 Has No Distinction between User and Kernel Modes
 Allowing all programs to directly access the hardware

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MS-DOS layer structure

Simple layers (BUT NOT achieved what was expected) in Traditional

UNIX system structure

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2. Layered Approach

 Small layers of modules, where the big layer will be depending

on the small inner layers
 Layers: developed and debugged independently
 Order of layers confusion
 No low level layer can call the upper layer service
 The run through of service request from higher/upper layer to
the lower most layer is making it less efficient – simple
processing has to be done at each layer

Layered Approach

3. Micro kernels

 Idea: to remove all non-essential services from the kernel, and

implement them as system applications instead, thereby making
the kernel as small and efficient as possible.

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 Most microkernels provide basic process and memory

management, and message passing between other services,and
not much more.
 Security and protection can be enhanced, as most services are
performed in user mode, not kernel mode.
 System expansion can also be easier, because it only involves
adding more system applications, not rebuilding a new kernel.
 Mach was the first and most widely known microkernel, and now
forms a major component of Mac OSX.
 Windows NT was originally microkernel, but suffered from
performance problems relative to Windows 95. NT 4.0 improved
performance by moving more services into the kernel, and now
XP is back to being more monolithic.
 Another microkernel example is QNX, a real-time OS for
embedded systems.

Architecture of a typical microkernel

4. Modules

 Modern OS development, object-oriented, small core kernel and

a set of modules, dynamic linking.
 Modules: Well defined tasks and interfaces, any module is
communicate to any other module, eliminating the problems of
going through multiple intermediary layers
 The kernel is relatively small in this architecture, similar to
microkernel.

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Solaris loadable modules

5. Hybrid

 NOT ONE but hybrids of several architectures

5.1 Mac OS X

 The MaC OSX architecture relies on the Mach microkernel

for basic system management services, and the BSD kernel
for additional services. Application services and
dynamically loadable modules ( kernel extensions ) provide
the rest of the OS functionality

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The Mac OS X structure

5.2 iOS

 The iOS operating system was developed by Apple for

iPhones and iPads.
 It runs with less memory
 Runs with great computing power
 Supports touch screen interface
 Graphics support for small screens

Architecture of Apple's iOS.

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5.3 Android

 The Android OS was developed for Android smartphones

and tablets.
 Android includes versions of Linux and a Java virtual
machine
 optimized for small platforms.
 Android apps are developed using a special Java-for-
Android development environment.

Architecture of Google's Android

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OS services

The OS controls the system resources and regulates access

Authentication features

Access attempts

 Program execution

Handling user programs (bringing the programs to memory for

execution and sending back)

Associating the user programs and system programs

Handling routines to be linked during runtime

Synchronous

Communication

Deadlock handling

 I/O operations

Granting access for the devices (device, drivers (S/w))

Read / write

 File System manipulation

File creation, updation, deletion, backups

Merging, appending, storage location, media, synchronization

Properties of those media devices: data transfer rate, capacity, data

access methods

 Communication

Data bus (clock), internet (message passing:Synchronization

algorithms)

 Error Detection

Failure modules, versioning control issues

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 Resource Allocation

CPU utilization

schedulers

 Protection

Password, passcode, OTP

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System calls

 The way to talk to system programs

 A request for a service- to get hardware accessibility
 Acts as an interface between the users programs/processes and
operating system
 API/library->Increases system portability
 Open, read, close, kill, wait, stop, execute

Categories of system calls

 Process control

 create process terminate process

 load, execute
 get/set process attributes (Data sharing across application.
Across different machines)
 wait for time, wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory

 File management

 create file, delete file

 open, close
 read, write, reposition
 get/set file attributes

 Device management

 request device, release device

 read, write, reposition
 get/set device attributes
 logically attach or detach devices

 Information maintenance

 get/set total system information -> time, date, computer name

and the organization to which it belongs
 get/set process, file, or device metadata ->author, creation time
and date, who edits it

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 Communication

 create, delete communication connection

 send, receive messages
 transfer status information
 attach or detach remote devices

 Protection
 get/set file permissions

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Virtualization and Virtual Machines

Virtualization is a process that allows a computer to share its hardware

resources with multiple digitally separated environments.

Each virtualized environment runs within its allocated resources, such as

memory, processing power, and storage.

 Provides an illusion of multiple execution environments/OS

 Process is executing on different environments with their own memory
managed by virtual memory techniques and CPU scheduling
 Ability to share hardware
 Only disk systems ->disadvantages
 Multi user interactive system
 Multiple virtual machines in one physical machine

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Threads and Multithreading

A thread is a single sequential flow of execution of tasks of a process so it is

also known as thread of execution or thread of control.

 It takes far less time to create a new thread in an existing process

than to create a new process.
 Threads can share the common data; they do not need to use Inter-
Process communication.
 Context switching is faster when working with threads.
 It takes less time to terminate a thread than a process.

Multithreading is the ability of a program or an operating system to enable

more than one user at a time without requiring multiple copies of the
program running on the computer. Multithreading can also handle multiple
requests from the same user.

 Each user request for a program or system service is tracked as a

thread with a separate identity.

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OS System Design and Implementation

 OS provides an atmosphere in which different applications and

programs can do useful work.
 There are many problems that can occur while designing and
implementing an operating system.

Operating System Design Goals

 It is quite complicated to define all the goals and specifications of the
operating system while designing [Link] design changes depending on
the type of the operating system i.e if it is batch system, time shared
system, single user system, multi user system, distributed system etc.

Two Categories of Design goals

 User Goals
The operating system should be convenient, easy to use, reliable, safe
and fast according to the users. However, these specifications are not
very useful as there is no set method to achieve these goals.
 System Goals
The operating system should be easy to design, implement and
maintain. These are specifications required by those who create,

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maintain and operate the operating system. But there is not specific
method to achieve these goals as well.
Operating System Mechanisms and Policies
 There is no specific way to design an operating system as it is a highly
creative task. However, there are general software principles that are
applicable to all operating systems.
 A subtle difference between mechanism and policy is that mechanism
shows how to do something and policy shows what to do. Policies may
change over time and this would lead to changes in mechanism. So, it
is better to have a general mechanism that would require few changes
even when a policy change occurs.
 For example - If the mechanism and policy are independent, then few
changes are required in mechanism if policy changes. If a policy
favours I/O intensive processes over CPU intensive processes, then a
policy change to preference of CPU intensive processes will not change
the mechanism.
Operating System Implementation
 The operating system needs to be implemented after it is designed.
Earlier they were written in assembly language but now higher level
languages are used.
 Advantages of Higher Level Language
There are multiple advantages to implementing an operating system
using a higher level language such as: the code is written more fast, it
is compact and also easier to debug and understand. Also, the
operating system can be easily moved from one hardware to another if
it is written in a high level language.
 Disadvantages of Higher Level Language
Using high level language for implementing an operating system leads
to a loss in speed and increase in storage requirements. However in
modern systems only a small amount of code is needed for high
performance, such as the CPU scheduler and memory manager. Also,
the bottleneck routines in the system can be replaced by assembly
language equivalents if required.
 Design Issues
 Transparency
 Flexibility
 Reliability
 Performance
 Scaling

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 Naming
 Replication
 Synchronization
 Security
 Authentication
 Authorization

Operating System services in GNU/Linux OS

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 GNU ( pronounced “gnu” ) is a free operating system consisting

of a kernel, libraries, system utilities, compilers, and end-
user applications.
 The acronym expands ->GNU's Not Unix"
 GNU has a Unix-like design, but it is available as free software
and does not contain any Unix code.
 GNU is comprised of a collection of software applications,
libraries and developer tools, along with a program to allocate
resources and communicate with the hardware, or kernel.
 GNU can be used with other kernels and is often used with a
Linux kernel.
 A GNU/Linux combination is the GNU/Linux operating system.
 The components of a GNU system,

 GNU compiler collection

 GNU C library
 GNU Emacs text editor
 GNOME desktop environment

 GNU programs can be ported to a multitude of other operating

systems, including different platforms such as Mac OS X and
Microsoft Windows.
 GNU is sometimes installed on Unix systems as a replacement
for proprietary utilities.

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