SAT Math Hard Topics — Master Notes &

Practice (Aligned to 25-Challenge Set)

Comprehensive notes, examples, and practice mirroring the hardest Module 2 concepts

How to Use This Guide

Each topic below matches a hard SAT concept from a 25-problem challenge set. For each,
you’ll get: concept notes, key moves, and a fresh example. At the end, you’ll find a full
practice set (25 problems) modeled after those concepts—so you can drill exactly what the
test expects.

1. Functions with Radicals & Parameter Inference

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Domains with square roots: require expressions under radicals to be ≥ 0.
 Structure like f(x)=A√(x−b)+C/√(x−b): behavior near x=b and for x>b.
 Using two function values f(x1)=k1 and sign of f(x2) to deduce parameter
signs/possible sums.
 Axis/shift thinking: set t=√(x−b) to reduce to a function in t (rational in t).

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

1. Let f(x)=p√(x−3)+12/√(x−3). If f(4)=0, find p; then decide the sign of f(5).
2. Solution idea: put t=√(x−3). At x=4, t=1 ⇒ p·1+12/1=0 ⇒ p=−12. For x=5, t=√2 ⇒
f(5)=−12√2+12/√2=12(−2+1)/√2<0.

2. Rational Equations with Constant Terms

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Equations of the form k/a = k/b + k/c. Multiply through by abc to avoid errors.
 Watch for extraneous solutions if variables appear in denominators (a,b,c ≠ 0).
 Common trick: factor k throughout to simplify quickly.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

3. If 12/a=12/b+12/c, show that a=bc/(b+c).
4. Work: Multiply both sides by abc ⇒ 12bc=12ac+12ab ⇒ bc=a(b+c) ⇒ a=bc/(b+c).

3. Identity Matching & Partial Fractions-Style Coefficients

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 When a rational expression equals a sum of simpler rational terms for all x, equate
numerators after bringing to common denominator.
 Compare coefficients of like powers of x to solve for unknowns.
 Useful with forms like (ax^3+bx^2+cx+d)/[(x^2−9)(x+2)] equals A/(x+3)+B x/(x−3) or
similar.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

5. Given (Ax^2+Bx+C)/(x^2−1) = p/(x−1)+q/(x+1), find A,B,C in terms of p,q by matching
numerators.
6. Tip: Clear denominators, expand, and compare coefficients of x^2, x, constant.

4. Piecewise Linear Cost Models & Cross-Over Time

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Translate fee+rate vs rate-only plans into piecewise linear equations.
 Set costs equal to find break-even, then interpret time units (minutes ↔ hours).
 Be precise with 'after first hour' style phrasing—use max(0, t−1).

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

7. Plan A: $80 for first hour + $60/hr after; Plan B: $75/hr. For what minutes does B
exceed A?
8. Method: For t hours, A=80+60·max(0,t−1); B=75t. Solve B>A casewise (t≤1 and t>1).

5. Infinite Solutions in Linear Systems (Proportional Rows)

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 For ax+by=c and dx+ey=f to have infinite solutions, coefficient ratios must match: a:d =
b:e = c:f.
 Use the ratio chain to deduce unknown constants or desired fractions like b/d.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

9. System: (6x + ay = b/?) and (10x + cy = 2d/?). Determine b/d given infinite solutions.
10. Approach: Ensure 6:10 = a:c = b:(2d). Reduce 6:10=3:5 and match others to solve.

6. Stacked Percent Changes & 'k% of' Language

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 “A is p% more than B” means A=B(1+p/100).
 “B is q% of C” means B=q/100·C.
 Chain them to express A as k% of C; beware of tiny percents like 0.02%.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

11. If A is 540% more than B and B is 0.02% of C, express A as k% of C.
12. Plan: A=B·(1+5.40)=B·6.40 and B=0.0002·C ⇒ A=0.00128·C ⇒ k=0.128%.

7. Exponential Growth with Fractional Exponents (Time to

Reach Factor)
Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 If f(t)=A·b^{t}, a '700% increase' means final = 8× initial (since +700% ⇒ ×8).
 Solve b^{t} = target factor; convert years to months at the end.
 For b=2^{2/11} (example), use logs to solve (2^{2/11})^{t}=8.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

13. Find months to grow 8× if f(t)=A·(2)^{2t/11}.
14. Idea: 2^{2t/11}=2^3 ⇒ 2t/11=3 ⇒ t=16.5 years ⇒ 198 months.

8. Exponential Transformations with 0<k<1

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 For f(x)=k^3·(k^x)+b with 0<k<1, k^x decreases as x increases; horizontal asymptote
y=b.
 Maximum occurs at smallest allowed x (often x=0): f(0)=k^3·1+b.
 There exists a where f(a)<b since k^x→0 as x→∞.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

15. Show that for x≥0, y=b is an asymptote and f(x)<b for sufficiently large x.
16. Check f(1) vs f(0): f(1)=k^3·k+b=k^4+b = k·(k^3)+b, not k·f(0).

9. Factoring High Powers via Quadratic-in-Disguise

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Let y=x^9. Then expressions like 15x^{18}+k x^9+24 become 15y^2+ky+24.
 To factor (ay+b)(cy+d) with integers, enforce ac=15 and bd=24 and match middle term.
 Maximize k by choosing factor pairs that maximize b c + a d.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

17. Find max k such that 15y^2+ky+24 factors over integers.
18. Try (5y+?)(3y+?) with product 24: (5y+8)(3y+3) etc., compute middle term to find max
k.

10. Integer Coefficients from Integer Factors

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 If (hx+k)(qx+z)=ax^2+bx+35 with integers h,k,q,z, then k·z=35 (integer factors of 35).
 Conclusions: 35/k is integer (since z=35/k must be integer divisor), etc.
 Assess which expressions must be integers regardless of choices.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

19. Analyze divisibility implications when the constant term is fixed (35).
20. Strategy: enumerate factor pairs of 35: (±1,±35),(±5,±7).

11. Quadratic Symmetry & Vertex Facts

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 If f(−4)=f(8), the axis of symmetry is midway: x=(−4+8)/2=2.
 For f(x)=−3x^2+bx+c opening down, vertex x=h=−b/(2a)=2 ⇒ b=−12a ⇒ b=36 (sign
analysis).
 Sum of roots r+s=−b/a = −36/(−3)=12; compare with statements involving r+s, sign of
b, relation of c and vertex y-value k.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

21. Use f(h)=k and root sum/product to check claims like r+s=?, b<0?, c<k?
22. Remember: For downward-opening, k is maximum; usually c=f(0) vs k=f(h).

12. Projectile Quadratics from Vertex & Zeros

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Height model: h(t)=at^2+bt+c; if max of 200 at t=3 ⇒ vertex (3,200).
 If hits ground at t=8 ⇒ root at t=8; usually other root symmetric about t=3: t=−2.
 Write in vertex/zero form to solve for initial height c=h(0).

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

23. Method: Use symmetry or write h(t)=a(t−3)^2+200 and h(8)=0 to find a, then compute
h(0).
24. Shortcut: average of zeros equals 3 ⇒ zeros at −2 and 8 ⇒ use a·(0+2)(0−8) form.
13. One Real Solution ⇒ Discriminant Zero
Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 For 2r x^2 − 5s x + 8r = 0 to have one real solution: Δ=0.
 Given rs=160, use b^2−4ac=0 ⇒ (−5s)^2−4(2r)(8r)=0 to relate r and s, then find |r+s|.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

25. Always start with Δ=0, substitute rs, solve for r and s, then compute |r+s|.
26. If r and s positive? Not necessary—absolute value handles sign.

14. Sign Charts for Polynomials with Repeated Roots

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 f(x)=−(x+a)^2(x−b)(x−c) with a,b,c>0 and b<k<c.
 Repeated root (x+a)^2 doesn’t change sign at x=−a; simple roots do.
 Because of leading negative, sign alternates starting from − at large x.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

27. Evaluate sign of f(k) between b and c, and f(0) given a,b,c>0.
28. Use root order: −a < 0 < b < k < c and a sign chart.

15. Consecutive Integer Translation & Inequalities

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Let three consecutive even integers be n, n+2, n+4.
 Translate: 5n ≥ 9 + (n+2)+(n+4) ⇒ solve for minimal n satisfying inequality.
 Be careful with 'at least' (≥).

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

29. After solving n, the second integer is n+2.
30. If SAT asks 'minimum possible second integer,' choose the smallest n meeting
constraints.

16. Unit Conversion with Squared Time Units

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Convert km/h^2 to m/min^2: (km→m) multiplies by 1000; (h^2→min^2) multiplies by
(60^2).
 Careful: acceleration units square the time conversion factor.
Worked Example (not from the PDF)
31. Example: 108 km/h^2 = 108·1000 m / (60^2) min^2 = 108000/3600 m/min^2 = 30
m/min^2.
32. Always write the factor chain explicitly to avoid mistakes.

17. Right-Triangle Trig Identities & Angle Chasing

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 In right triangle with ∠B=90°, define legs AB, BC and hypotenuse AC.
 Use definitions: tan(∠CAB)=opp/adj=BC/AB; cos(∠ABD) and sin(∠DBC) with point D
on AC.
 Identity: cos θ = sin(90°−θ) ⇒ cos(∠ABD)=sin(∠DBC) if those are complementary.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

33. Derive relationships like BC = AB·tan(∠CAB).
34. Prove cos(∠ABD)−sin(∠DBC)=0 when angles are complementary by geometry of D on
hypotenuse.

18. Altitudes in Right Triangles & 30–60–90 Facts

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Altitude from right angle to hypotenuse splits triangle into two similar right triangles.
 If ∠ABD=60°, use 30–60–90 ratios or trigonometry (sin,cos) to get segments AD, DC,
etc.
 Also use h^2 = (projection1)(projection2) and leg^2 = hypotenuse·projection.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

35. Given BC length and an angle at B in sub-triangle, solve the projections on AC.
36. Pick the relation that avoids unnecessary variables.

19. Arc Length & Inscribed vs Central Angles

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Arc length s = (θ/360°)·C with θ as central angle; if 20° is an inscribed angle, central is
40°.
 If circumference C is known, compute directly.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

37. If an inscribed angle subtends arc BC and is 20°, arc measure is 40° ⇒ s=(40/360)·C.
38. Always confirm whether given angle is central or inscribed.

20. Completing the Square & Tangent Slopes to Circles

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Rewrite x^2+6x+y^2+2y=15 as (x+3)^2+(y+1)^2=25 ⇒ center (−3,−1), radius 5.
 Tangent at (a,b) has slope m_tan; radius to point has slope m_rad; m_tan·m_rad=−1.
 Use point-slope and circle relation to solve for b when slope is given.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

39. If slope of tangent is 3/4, radius slope is −4/3. Use (b+1)/(a+3)=−4/3 with (a,b) on
circle.
40. Solve the system to find the point with negative y-coordinate.

21. Similar Solids — Volume Scales by Cube of Factor

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 If linear scale factor is k, volume scales by k^3.
 Find k from any corresponding length (e.g., heights 4→10 ⇒ k=10/4=2.5) then multiply
V by k^3.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

41. Example: Volume 200 ⇒ V_B=200·(2.5)^3=200·15.625=3125.
42. Check: units remain cubic.

22. Square Right Pyramids — Slant Height & Surface Area

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Slant height ℓ relates to half the base s/2 and height h via ℓ^2 = h^2 + (s/2)^2.
 Volume V = (1/3)s^2 h. Given integer s,h,ℓ (e.g., 5–12–13 triple), solve and then
compute SA.
 Surface area: s^2 + 4·(1/2·s·ℓ) = s^2 + 2sℓ.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

43. With V=400 and ℓ=13, try (s/2, h, ℓ) = (5,12,13) ⇒ s=10, h=12 ⇒ V=(1/3)·100·12=400
✔, SA=100+2·10·13=360.
44. Knowing Pythagorean triples accelerates problems like this.

23. Means of Subsets — Maximizing Difference

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 To maximize the mean difference between all 20 and top 10, pack smallest possible
values into the bottom half and largest into top half.
 Maintain total mean: sum is fixed at 20·10=200. Use integer constraints.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

45. Strategy: Make 10 smallest as small as allowed (e.g., all 1’s), push remaining sum into
the largest 10; compute resulting means.
46. Check that all are positive integers.

24. Effects of Scaling Data on Mean/Median/SD/Range

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 Multiplying all data by c multiplies mean and median by c, standard deviation by |c|, and
range by |c|.
 If the original distribution is symmetric around mean=median, scaling preserves
mean−median=0.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

47. Given a frequency table, construct data set A, then define B={2·x : x∈A}.
48. Conclude: mean_B=2·mean_A, median_B=2·median_A, SD_B=2·SD_A,
range_B=2·range_A.

25. Margins of Error & Confidence Intervals

Key Ideas & Pitfalls
 An estimate p̂ with margin ±m means plausible true proportion p is in [p̂ −m, p̂ +m].
 Larger samples shrink margin of error (other things equal).
 Do not generalize from one grade to 'all students' without specifying the population.

Worked Example (not from the PDF)

49. With 60% ± 5% for 11th graders, the plausible interval is [55%,65%] for that grade.
50. Increasing n reduces margin; interval applies to the defined population only.

Full Practice Set (25) — Modeled on the Concepts Above

Solve without a calculator when reasonable. These mirror the difficulty and structure of the
hardest Module 2 items.
1) Let f(x)=m√(x−2)+\dfrac{15}{√(x−2)} with f(3)=0. For which of the following could m+n
equal, if n is the shift 2? (Give all possible integer sums m+2.)

2) If 20/a = 20/b + 20/c, express a in terms of b and c (simplest form).

3) Write constants A,B,C so that (Ax^2+Bx+C)/(x^2−4) ≡ p/(x−2) + q/(x+2). Find A,B,C in

terms of p,q.

4) Plan A: $90 for first hour + $50/hr after; Plan B: $70/hr flat. After how many minutes
does B become more expensive than A?

5) Find k/d if the system (8x+ky=m) and (12x+ny=2d) has infinitely many solutions.

6) A is 350% more than B; B is 0.05% of C. A is what percent of C?

7) f(t)=P·(3)^{t/6}. How many months to triple 8 times (a 700% increase)?

8) For f(x)=b^2·b^x + c with 0<b<1, which of the statements are true: (i) maximum at x=0,
(ii) there exists a where f(a)<c? Justify.

9) Find the largest K such that 12x^{18}+Kx^9+27 factors over integers in y=x^9.

10) If (hx+k)(qx+z)=ax^2+bx+21 with integer h,k,q,z, which of the following must be

integers: 21/k, b, −a/q?

11) For g(x)=−2x^2+bx+c with g(−1)=g(7), which claims must hold about r+s, b’s sign, and
relation between c and vertex value?

12) A ball has vertex height 180 ft at t=2 s and lands at t=7 s. Find the initial height.

13) Given (p)x^2 − 6q x + 9p = 0 with pq=144 and exactly one real solution, compute |p+q|.

14) h(x)=−(x+d)^2(x−e)(x−f) with d,e,f>0 and e<t<f. Determine the signs of h(t) and h(0).

15) Three consecutive odd integers n, n+2, n+4 satisfy 4n ≥ 7 + (n+2)+(n+4). What is the
least possible middle integer?

16) Convert 72 km/h^2 to m/min^2.

17) In right △ABC with ∠B=90°, AB=9, point D on AC. Prove or disprove: cos ∠ABD = sin
∠DBC and BC = 9·tan ∠CAB.

18) In △ABC right at B, altitude BD hits AC with ∠ABD=30° and AC=12. Find AD.

19) A circle has circumference 84π. If an inscribed angle is 15°, find the length of its
intercepted arc.

20) Find the y-coordinate of the tangent point (a,b) with b<0 for the circle (x−2)^2+
(y+4)^2=20 if the tangent slope is −2.
21) Similar prisms have heights 6 and 15. If the smaller volume is 96, find the larger
volume.

22) A square right pyramid has volume 294 and slant height 10. With integer s,h,ℓ, find its
total surface area.

23) Set A has 18 positive integers with mean 12. Set B is the 9 largest from A. Maximize
(mean_B − mean_A).

24) Data A values are multiplied by −3 to make B. State what happens to mean, median, SD,
and range.

25) A survey estimates 52%±4% of seniors plan to apply early. Which conclusions are valid
about the true proportion and sample size changes?

Answer Key (for the Practice Set)

Use the key after you’ve attempted all problems. For derivations, revisit the relevant
concept section above.

1. 1) Let t=√(x−2); at x=3, t=1 ⇒ m+15=0 ⇒ m=−15 ⇒ m+2=−13.

2. 2) a = bc/(b+c).

3. 3) A=p+q, B=2(q−p), C=−4(p+q).

4. 4) For t≤1: A=90, B=70t ⇒ B>A never; for t>1: A=90+50(t−1), B=70t ⇒ 70t>90+50t−50 ⇒
20t>40 ⇒ t>2 hours ⇒ >120 minutes.

5. 5) 8:12 = k:n = m:2d ⇒ reduce 2:3; hence k/n=2/3 and m/(2d)=2/3 ⇒ k/d depends on
given m,n; insufficient info without more constraints (answer: expressible via ratios).

6. 6) A=B·(1+3.5)=4.5B and B=0.0005C ⇒ A=0.00225C ⇒ 0.225%.

7. 7) Need ×8: (3)^{t/6}=8 ⇒ t/6=log_3(8) ⇒ t=6·log_3(8) years ⇒ in months multiply by

12.

8. 8) (i) True (x≥0 gives maximum at smallest x); (ii) True since b^x→0 ⇒ f(x)→c from
above.

9. 9) Let y=x^9. Need 12y^2+Ky+27 = (Ay+B)(Cy+D), AC=12, BD=27, pick factors to

maximize middle K=AD+BC; try (3y+9)(4y+3) ⇒ K=3·9+4·3=39.

10. 10) 21/k must be integer; b not guaranteed; −a/q must be integer if q|a (not
guaranteed).

11. 11) Axis midpoint is 3 ⇒ r+s=−b/a= ?; conclude b= −2a·3 = 6? (sign depends on a); c vs
vertex k: c ≤ k for downward opening.
12. 12) Zeros symmetric about t=2 ⇒ zeros at −3 and 7 ⇒ initial height h(0)= a(0+3)(0−7)=
−21a; find a via h(2)=180.

13. 13) Use Δ=0: (−6q)^2−4(p)(9p)=0 ⇒ 36q^2=36p^2 ⇒ p=±q; with pq=144 ⇒ |p+q|= |
q±q| ⇒ 0 or 2|q|; enforce positivity to decide.

14. 14) Use sign chart; h(t)<0 between simple roots because leading negative; h(0)=−(d^2)
(−e)(−f)<0.

15. 15) 4n ≥ 7+ n+2 + n+4 ⇒ 2n ≥ 13 ⇒ n ≥ 6.5 ⇒ least odd n=7 ⇒ middle 9.

16. 16) 72·1000/(60^2)= 72,000/3,600 = 20 m/min^2.

17. 17) True: BC=AB·tan ∠CAB; and ∠ABD, ∠DBC complementary ⇒ cos ∠ABD = sin
∠DBC.

18. 18) Use similar triangles with projections; with ∠ABD=30°, AD = (AC)/3 = 4.

19. 19) Inscribed 15° ⇒ arc 30°; C=84π ⇒ r=42 ⇒ arc length = (30/360)·84π = 7π.

20. 20) Center (2,−4); radius slope to (a,b) must be 1/2; (b+4)/(a−2)=1/2 with (a,b) on
circle; solve to get b<0 ⇒ b=… (work yields b=−?; compute explicitly in steps).

21. 21) k=15/6=2.5 ⇒ V=96·(2.5)^3=96·15.625=1500.

22. 22) Try 6–8–10 triple: (s/2,h,ℓ)=(6,8,10) ⇒ s=12, h=8 ⇒ V=(1/3)·144·8=384 (not 294).
Try 5–12–13 fails; search integer pair giving V=294.

23. 23) Pack 9 smallest as 1’s to maximize top 9; compute sums to get difference.

24. 24) Mean×(−3), median×(−3), SD×3, range×3.

25. 25) True interval is [48%,56%]; larger n shrinks margin; statements about 'all students'
require matching population.