SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

AUTONOMOUS

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(19EC0445)
I [Link] I-Sem (CSE)

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
 UNIT- I
Basics of Semiconductor: Conductors,
Insulators, and Semiconductors- crystal
structure, Energy band diagrams, valence
band, conduction band, and band gap;
intrinsic, and extrinsic ( p-type and n-type)
semiconductors, drift and diffusion currents
expression only, mass action law , charge
neutrality in semiconductor.
 INTRODUCTON

Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as
insulators, semiconductors, and conductors

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of
conductivity when voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz.
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when
a voltage is applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper,
Aluminum, Silver, Gold.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere
between the insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 10 4
-cm. Two of the most commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium
(Ge=32 atomic no.).
 Conductor and Insulators.
Atomic Model

the gap can be crossed

only when breakdown
conditions occur the gap is smaller
and can be crossed the conduction band
when a photon and valence band
is absorbed overlap, so there is no gap

4
Silicon and Germanium

5
Conduction Electron and Holes.

An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room

temperature has sufficient heat energy for some
valence electrons to jump the gap from the
valence band into the conduction band, becoming
Conduction Electron

It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band

electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in
the valence band.

6
 Electron Hole Current.
In conduction band : When a voltage is
applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon,
the thermally generated free electrons in
the conduction band, are now easily
attracted toward the positive end.

This movement of free electrons is one

type of current in a semiconductive
material and is called electron current.

In valance band: In valance band holes generated due to free electrons. Electrons
in the valance band are although still attached with atom and not free to move,
however they can move into nearby hole with a little change in energy, thus
leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has moved from
one place to another in the crystal structure. It is called hole current.

7
Electron Hole Current.

8
 N-type semiconductor
Electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band make the semiconductive
material to conduct but they are too limited to
make it a very good conductor..

Adding impurities in materials like Si or Ge can

drastically increase the conductivity of
material. The process is called doping.

Addition of a penta-valent material icnreases

the number of conduction electrons.
An antimony
Majority carrier: electrons (Sb) impurity atom is shown in the
center. The extra electron from the
Minority carriers: holes Sb atom becomes a free electron.

Material is called N-type semiconductor

9
P-type semiconductor.

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon

crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity
atom is shown in the center.

10
 CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR

In a pure sc, the no. of holes is equal to the no. of electrons. Thermal agitation
continue to produce new electron- hole pairs and the electron hole pairs disappear
because of recombination. with each electron hole pair created , two charge carrying
particles are formed
J = Jn + Jp
=q n µn E + q p µp E
= (n µn + p µp)qE

Where n=no. of electrons / unit volume i.e., concentration of free electrons P= no. of
holes / unit volume i.e., concentration of holes
E=applied electric field strength, V/m

q= charge of electron or hole I n Coulombs

 i

Hence, is the conductivity of sc which is equal to (n µn + p µp)q. he resistivity

of sc is reciprocal of conductivity.

It is evident from the above equation that current density with in a sc is

directly proportional to applied electric field E.
For pure sc, n=p= ni where ni = intrinsic concentration.
The value of ni is given by n 2=AT3 exp (-EGO/KT)
therefore,J= ni ( µn + µp) q E

Intrinsic conductivity increases at the rate of 5% per o C for Ge and 7% per o C for
Si.
Conductivity in extrinsic sc (N Type and P Type):
i

The conductivity of intrinsic sc is given by = ni ( µn + µp) q = (n µn + p µp)q For N

type , n>>p

pµp

CHARGE DENSITIES IN P TYPE AND N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

Mass Action Law:

Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the no. of
holes and the concentration of electrons is constant and is independent
of amount of donor and acceptor impurity doping.
n.p= n 2
where n= electron concentration p = hole concentration ni2= intrinsic concentration
 REFERENCES

[Link]://[Link]/watch?v=Kp-jS6NHsB8&t=907s

2. [Link]
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
AUTONOMOUS

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(19EC0445)
I [Link] I-Sem (CSE)

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
 UNIT- II
P-N Junction diode: Open circuited PN Junction, Forward and
Reverse Bias of PN Junction, V-I Characteristics, Quantitative
Theory of PN Diode Currents, Temperature dependence of the V-
I characteristic, Diode Resistances, Diode Capacitances,
Applications, Breakdown Mechanisms- avalanche and Zener
breakdown, Zener diode V-I characteristics and Applications,
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
 PN Junction
Although P-type material has holes in excess and N-type material has a number of
free conduction electron however the net number of proton and electron are equal
in each individual material keeping it just neutral.

The basic silicon structure at the instant

of junction formation showing only the
majority and minority carriers.

Free electrons in the n region near the

pn junction begin to diffuse across the
junction and fall into holes near the
junction in the p region.

3
PN Junction

For every electron that diffuses across

the junction and
combines with a hole, a positive charge
is left in the n region and a negative
charge is created in the p region,
forming a barrier potential.

This action continues until the voltage of

the barrier repels further diffusion.

The blue arrows between the positive

and negative charges in the depletion
region represent the electric field.

4
Energy band and potential barrier

5
 Forward Biased
Forward bias is a condition that allows current through
pn junction.

A dc voltage (Vbais) is applied to bias a diode.

Positive side is connected to p-region (anode) and
negative side is connected with n-region.
As more electrons flow into the
Vbais depletion region reducing the
number of positive ions and
similarly more holes move in
reducing the positive ions.

This reduces the width of

depletion region.

Current limiting
resistance

8
FORWARD RESISTANCES

STATIC FORWARD RESISTANCE

DYNAMIC FORWARD RESISTANCE:

 Reverse Biased
Reverse bias is a condition that prevents
current through junction.
Positive side of Vbias is connected to the n-
region whereas the negative side is
connected with p-region.
The positive side of bias voltage
Depletion region get wider with this attracts the majority carriers of
configuration. n-type creating more positive
ions at the junction.

This widens the depletion

region.

10
 Reverse Current

A small amount current is generated due to the

minority carriers in p and n regions.
These minority carriers are produced due to
thermally generated hole-electron pairs.
Minority electrons in p-region pushed towards
+ve bias voltage, cross junction and then fall in
the holes in n-region and still travel in valance
band generating a hole current.

11
Reverse Breakdown

If the external bias voltage is increased

to a value call breakdown voltage the
reverse current can increase drastically.
Free minority electrons get enough
energy to knock valance electron into
the conduction band.
The newly released electron can further
strike with other atoms.
The process is called avalanche effect.

12
 Diode V-I Characteristic
VI Characteristic for forward bias.
The current in forward biased called forward current and is
designated If.
At 0V (Vbias) across the diode, there is no forward current.
With gradual increase of Vbias, the forward voltage and
forward current increases.
A resistor in series will limit the forward current in order to
protect the diode from overheating and permanent damage.
A portion of forward-bias voltage drops across the limiting
resistor.
Continuing increase of Vf causes rapid increase of forward
current but only a gradual increase in voltage across diode.

13
 Diode V-I Characteristic

Dynamic Resistance:
The resistance of diode is not constant but it changes over the entire curve.
So it is called dynamic resistance.

14
 Diode V-I Characteristic
VI Characteristic for reverse bias.

With 0V reverse voltage there is no

reverse current.
There is only a small current through the
junction as the reverse voltage increases.
At a point, reverse current shoots up with
the break down of diode. The voltage
called break down voltage. This is not
normal mode of operation.
After this point the reverse voltage
remains at approximately VBR but IR
increase very rapidly.
Break down voltage depends on doping
level, set by manufacturer.

15
 Diode V-I Characteristic

The complete V-I

characteristic curve

16
The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions

The pn junction
excited by a constant-
current source
supplying a current I
in the forward
direction.
The depletion layer
narrows and the
barrier voltage
decreases by V volts,
which appears as an
external voltage in the
forward direction.
17
 Current Components of PN Junction
Diode

Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is

assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; NA
>>ND. 18
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
Excess minority carrier concentration:

Exponential relationship
Small voltage incremental give rise to great incremental of
excess minority carrier concentration.

19
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
Distribution of excess minority concentration:

Where

are called excess-minority-carrier lifetime.

20
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
The total current can be obtained by the diffusion current of
majority carriers.

21
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
The saturation current is given by :

22
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
I-V characteristic equation:

Exponential relationship, nonlinear.

Is is called saturation current, strongly depends
on temperature.
or 2 in general
VT is thermal voltage.

23
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
assuming V1 at I1 and V2 at I2
then:

* For a decade changes in current, the diode

voltage drop changes by 60mv (for n=1) or
120mv (for n=2).

24
 The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
Turn-on voltage
A conduction diode has approximately a constant voltage
-on voltage.
For silicon
For germanium

Diodes with different current rating will exhibit the turn-on

voltage at different currents.
Negative TC,

25
 Junction Capacitance

Diffusion Capacitance
Charge stored in bulk region changes with the change of voltage across
pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
Small-signal diffusion capacitance

Depletion capacitance
Charge stored in depletion layer changes with the change of voltage
across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
Small-signal depletion capacitance

SJTU Zhou Lingling 26

 Diffusion Capacitance

According to the definition:

The charge stored in bulk region is obtained from below

equations:

27
 Diffusion Capacitance
The expression for diffusion capacitance:

Forward-bias, linear relationship

Reverse-bias, almost inexistence

28
 Depletion Capacitance

According to the definition:

Actually this capacitance is similar to parallel plate

capacitance.

SJTU Zhou Lingling 29

 Depletion Capacitance

A more general formula for depletion capacitance is :

Where m is called grading coefficient.

If the concentration changes sharply,

Forward-bias condition,
Reverse-bias condition,

30
 Junction Capacitance
Remember:

a) Diffusion and depletion capacitances are

incremental capacitances, only are applied under
the small-signal circuit condition.
b) They are not constants, they have relationship with
the voltage across the pn junction.

31
Zener Diode

Circuit symbol

The diode i v
characteristic with the
breakdown region shown
in some detail.

32
 Zener Diodes
A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction that
is designed for operation in reverse-
breakdown region
When a diode reaches reverse breakdown,
its voltage remains almost constant even
though the current changes drastically, and
this is key to the Zener diode operation.
Ideally, the reverse breakdown has a
constant breakdown voltage. This makes it
useful as a voltage reference, which is its
primary application.

33
Zener Breakdown Characteristic
As the reverse voltage (VR) increases, the
reverse current(IR) remains extremely
small up to the knee of the curve.

Reverse current is also called Zener

current(Iz).

At knee point the breakdown effect

begins, the internal Zener resistance (ZZ)
begins to decrease.

The reverse current increase rapidly.

The Zener breakdown (VZ) voltage

remains nearly constant.

34
 Zener Diode Impedence
The zener impedance, ZZ, is the ratio of a
change in voltage in the breakdown
region to the corresponding change in
current:
Practical model

What is the zener impedance if the zener diode

voltage changes from 4.79 V to 4.94 V when
the current changes from 5.00 mA to 10.0
mA?

30

35
 Zener Regulation
The ability to keep the reverse voltage constant
across its terminal is the key feature of the Zener
diode.

It maintains constant voltage over a range of reverse

current values.

A minimum reverse current IZK must be maintained in

order to keep diode in regulation mode. Voltage
decreases drastically if the current is reduced below
the knee of the curve.

Above IZM, max current, the Zener may get damaged

permanently.

36
 REFERENCES

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
notes-pdf/
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
AUTONOMOUS

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(19EC0445)
I [Link] I-Sem (CSE)

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
 UNIT- III
Rectifiers: Definition and Types, Half wave Rectifier, Full
wave Rectifier and Bridge Rectifier, Comparison of Rectifiers,
Filter - Definition and Types, Inductor Filter, Capacitor Filter,
L-section Filter, CLC or - section Filter, Comparison of
various types of filters.
Basic Rectifier setup, half wave rectifier, full wave
rectifier, bridge rectifier, derivations of
characteristics of rectifiers, rectifier circuits-
operation, input and output waveforms,Filters,
Inductor filter, Capacitor filter, L- section filter, -
section filter, Multiple L- section and Multiple
section filter ,comparison of various filter circuits
in terms of ripple factors.
What is Power supply?
Need for Power supply
Elements of Power supply
Filters
Voltage Regulators
A basic Power supply
 Why we go for power supply
studies?
All electronic circuits need smooth DC
power supply in order to function
correctly.
The DC power supplied either from
battery or power pack units
 Contd
The battery power supply may not be
economical
Some other circuits, those using digital ICs,
also need their power supply to be regulated.
 What is a Power Supply?
A device, which converts, regulates, and
transmits the required power to the circuit to
be operated
 What is AC
The voltage (and current) alternates
between positive and negative over time
and the resulting waveform shape is a sine
wave.
 What is DC?
A Direct Current (DC) supply stays at a
fixed, regular, voltage all of the time, like
the voltage from a battery.
 Elements of a Power Supply
Transformer
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
 TRANSFORMER
The AC line voltage available for
commercial purpose is not suitable for
electronic circuits.
Most of the electronic circuits require a
considerably lower voltage
The transformer is a device used to convert
the ac line voltage to a voltage level more
appropriate to the needs of the circuit to be
operated
At the same time, the transformer provides
electrical isolation between the ac line and
the circuit to be operated.
This is an important safety consideration.
The output of the transformer is still an
ac voltage, but now of an appropriate
magnitude for the circuit to be powered.
 Rectifiers
Rectifier is a device which convert AC
voltage in to pulsating DC
A rectifier utilizes unidirectional
conducting device Ex : P-N junction
diodes
Important points to be studied while
analyzing the various rectifiers
Rectifier efficiency
Peak value of the current
Peak value of the voltage
Ripple factor
 Types
Depending up on the period of conduction
Half wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier
Depending up on the connection procedure
Bridge rectifier
 Half wave rectifier
The ripple factor is quite high(1.21)
Rectifier efficiency is very low(40%)
TUF is low(0.21)
The half wave rectifier circuit is normally not
used as a power rectifier circuit
 Half wave Rectifiers
As diodes conduct current in one direction and block in other.
When connected with ac voltage, diode only allows half cycle
passing through it and hence convert ac into dc.
As the half of the wave get rectified, the process called half wave
rectification.

18
A diode is connected to an ac source and a load resistor
forming a half wave rectifier.
Positive half cycle causes current through diode, that
causes voltage drop across resistor.
 Diode as Rectifiers
Reversing diode.

Average value of Half wave output voltage:

VAVG = VP / pi

VAVG is approx 31.8% of Vp

PIV: Peak Inverse Voltage = Vp

20
 Full wave rectifier
Ripple factor is (0.48)
Rectifier efficiency is high(81.2%)
TUF is high(0.693)
The Center-Tapped Full wave
rectifiers
A center-tapped transformer is used with two diodes that conduct
on alternating half-cycles.

During the positive half-

cycle, the upper diode is
forward-biased and the
lower diode is reverse-
biased.

During the negative half-

cycle, the lower diode is
forward-biased and the
upper diode is reverse-
biased.

23
 Bridge Rectifier
Suitable for applications where large powers
are required
 The Bridge Full-wave
rectifiers
The Bridge Full-Wave rectifier uses four diodes connected across the
entire secondary as shown.

Conduction path for the

positive half-cycle.

Conduction path for the

negative half-cycle.

25
Block diagram of a Power Supply
Fields?
The most important consideration in designing
a power supply is the DC voltage at the output
It should be able to furnish the maximum
current needed ,maintaining the voltage at
constatnt level
The AC ripple should be low
The power supply should be protect in the
event of short circuit on the load side
The response of the power supply to
temperature changes should be minimum
 Light Emitting Diodes
o When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the
n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.

The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to
the energy of visible light.

53
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
LCD Panel is based on
A light valve for each pixel
that turn the light on, off,
or an intermediate level.
Grid of such light valve
for the LCD display panel.
A back light and display
enhancement films
create the illumination.
Figures are curtsy of 3M
 LCD-Display
Applying voltage to the
electrodes changes the
level of illumination in
each sub-pixel
The panel is sandwiched
between
Front surface films to
enhance display
property
Backlight

Figures are curtsy of 3M

 Linear Polarized Light
Light usually vibrates in all
direction
A linear polarized light
limit the vibration to one
direction
It absorbs the component
of light that vibrate in all
other direction.
LCD require light to vibrate
in one direction

Figures are curtsy of 3M

 Iodine Based Polarizer
Is the most common polarizer
It is made by
Cellulose Triacetate
Stretching a cast polyvinyl alcohol polyvinyl alcohol film
film (PVA) to align the iodine in
Cellulose Triacetate
turn.
Staining it with iodine
The stained PVA laminated
between two slices of cellulose
triacetate.
The cellulose triacetate
Provide physical rigidity
Some degree of heat and humidity polyvinyl alcohol film
protection

Figures are curtsy of 3M

 About Liquid Crystal
Liquid crystal molecules can
move freely while maintaining
their orientation.
It align itself to a polyimide film
to the inside of a panel glass.
When the two glass panels are
not aligned the liquid crystal
twists accordingly.
The liquid crystal will also align
to electric field.

Figures are curtsy of 3M

 Light Path
The light passes through the
polarizer.
The voltage applied to the
electrodes controls the liquid
crystal orientation
The liquid crystal orientation
controls the rotation of the
incoming polarized light.
Color filters are used in color
LCD, where each color sub-
pixel is controlled individually

Figures are curtsy of 3M

 Photo Diode
A photodiode is a special light
sensitive diode with a clear window
to the pn junction. It is operated with
reverse bias. Reverse current
increases with greater incident light.

Dark current

The tiny current that is present when the

diode is not exposed to light is called
dark current

60
 Varactor Diode
A varactor diode is a special purpose
diode operated in reverse-bias to form
a voltage-controlled capacitor. The
width of the depletion region increases
with reverse-bias.

Varactor diodes are used in tuning

applications. The applied voltage
controls the capacitance and hence the
resonant frequency.

61
 CHARACTERISTIC OF TUNNEL DIODE
Ip

Ip:- Peak Current

Iv :- Valley Current
Vp:- Peak Voltage - Ve Resistance Region

Vv:- Valley Voltage

Forward Current
Vf:- Peak Forward
Iv
Voltage

Vp Vv Vf
Reverse
voltage Forward Voltage
Reverse Current
TUNNEL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
This is the equivalent
circuit of tunnel diode rs
when biased in negative
resistance region.
Cj -R
At higher frequencies the
series R and L can be
ignored. Ls

Hence equivalent circuit can be reduced to parallel

combination of junction capacitance and negative
resistance.
 SCR:
The SCR is the most important special semiconductor
device. This device is popular for its Forward-Conducting and
Reverse-blocking characteristics.
SCR can be used in high-power devices. For example,
in the central processing unit of the computer, the SCR is used
in switch mode power supply (SMPS).
The DIAC, a combination of two Shockley Diodes, and
the TRIAC, a combination of two SCRs connected
anti-parallelly are important power-control devices. The UJT is
also used as an efficient switching device.
 SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
(SCR)
The silicon-controlled rectifier or semiconductor
controlled rectifier is a two-state device used for efficient power
control.

SCR is the parent member of the thyristor family and is

used in high-power [Link] constructional features, physical
operation and characteristics are explained in the following sections.
 Constructional Features
The SCR is a four-layer structure, either p n p n or n p
n p, that effectively blocks current through two terminals until it is
turned ON by a small-signal at a third terminal.
The SCR has two states: a high-current low-impedance ON
state and a low-current high-impedance OFF state.
The basic transistor action in a four-layer p n p n
structure is analysed first with only two terminals,and then the third
control input is introduced.
Physical Operation and Characteristics:
The physical operation of the SCR can be explained clearly with
reference to the current voltage characteristics.
The forward-bias condition and reverse-bias condition illustrate
the conducting state and the reverse blocking state respectively. Based
on these two states a typical I V characteristic of the SCR is shown in
Fig. 8-2.
 SCR in Forward Bias:
There are two different states in which we can examine the SCR in the
forward-biased condition:
(i) The high- impedance or forward-blocking state
(ii) The low-impedance or forward-conducting state
At a critical peak forward voltage Vp, the SCR switches from the blocking state
to the conducting state, as shown in Fig. 8-2.
A positive voltage places junction j1 and j3 under forward-bias, and the
centre junction j2 under reverse-bias.
The for ward voltage in the blocking state appears across the reverse-
biased junc tion j2 as the applied voltage V is increased. The voltage from the
anode A to cathode C, as shown in Fig. 8-1, is very small after switching to the
forward-conducting state, and all three junctions are forward-biased. The
junction j2 switches from reverse-bias to forward-bias..
 SCR in Reverse Bias:
In the reverse-blocking state the junctions j1 and j3 are reverse-biased,
and j2 is forward-biased.
The supply of electrons and holes to junction j2 is restricted, and due to
the thermal generation of electron hole pairs near junctions j1 and j2 the device
current is a small saturation current.
In the reverse blocking condition the current remains small until avalanche
breakdown occurs at a large reverse-bias of several thousand volts.
An SCR p n p n structure is equivalent to one p n p transistor and one n
p n transistor sharing some common terminals.

Collector current I C 1 = 1i + I CO 1 having a transfer ratio 1 for the p n p.

Collector current I C 2 = 2i + I CO 2 having a transfer ratio a2 for the n p n.
ICO1 and ICO 2 stand for the respective collector-saturation currents.
I C 1 = 1i + I CO 1 = I (8-1)
I C 2 = 2 i + I CO 2 = I (8-2)
SCR in Reverse Bias:
 SCR in Reverse Bias:
The total current through the SCR is the sum of iC1 and iC2:
I C1 + I = -3)
Substituting the values of collector current from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) in Eq. (8-3) we
get:
i( CO 1 + I CO 2 = i
i = (I CO 1 + I CO 2 ) /(1- -4)
Case I: When (
As the sum of the values of alphas tends to unity, the SCR current i increases rapidly.
The derivation is no
longer valid as (
Case II: When (
the SCR resultant current can be expressed as:
i = I CO 1 + I CO 2 -5)
The current, i, passing through the SCR is very small. It is the combined collector-
saturation currents of the two equivalent transistors as long as the sum (
very small or almost near zero.
 I V Characteristics of the SCR:

Forward-Blocking State:
When the device is biased in the forward-blocking state, as shown in Fig. 8-
4(a), the applied voltage appears primarily across the reverse-biased junction j2. Al
though the junctions j1 and j3 are forward-biased, the current is small.
 I V Characteristics of the SCR:
Forward-Conducting State of the SCR:
As the value of (
mechanisms ,many holes injected at j1 survive to be swept across j2 into p2.
This process helps feed the recombination in p2 and support the injection
of holes into n2. In a similar manner, the transistor action of electrons injected at j3
and collected at j2 supplies electrons for n1.
The current through the device can be much larger.
 Reverse-Blocking State of the SCR:
The SCR in reverse-biased condition allows almost negligible
current to flow through it. This is shown in Fig. 8-4(c).
In the reverse-blocking state of the SCR, a small saturation
current flows from anode to cathode. Holes will flow from the gate into p2, the base of
the n p n transistor, due to positive gate current.
The required gate current for turn-on is only a few milli-amperes,
therefore, the SCR can be turned on by a very small amount of power in the gate.
 I V Characteristics of the SCR:
As shown in Fig. 8-5, if the gate
current is 0 mA, the critical voltage is
higher, i.e., the SCR requires more voltage
to switch to the conducting state.
But as the value of gate
current increases, the critical Characteristics of the SCR:
I Vvoltage
becomes lower, and the SCR switches
to the conducting state at a lower voltage.
At the higher gate current IG2,
the SCR switches faster than at the lower
gate current IG1,
because IG2 > IG1.
 TRIODE AC SWITCH (TRIAC):
The term TRIAC is derived by combining the first three letters of

A TRIAC is capable of conducting in both the directions. The

TRIAC, is thus, a bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It is widely
used for the control of power in ac circuits.
 Constructional Features:
Depending upon the polarity of the gate pulse and the biasing
conditions, the main four-layer structure that turns ON by a regenerative process
could be one of p1 n1, p2 n2, p1 n1 p2 n3, or p2 n1 p1 n4, as shown in Fig. 8-8.
 Advantages of the TRIAC:
The TRIAC has the following advantages:

(i) They can be triggered with positive- or negative-polarity voltage.

(ii) They need a single heat sink of slightly larger size.
(iii) They need a single fuse for protection, which simplifies their construction.
(iv) In some dc applications, the SCR has to be connected with a parallel diode for
protection against reverse voltage, whereas a TRIAC may work without a diode, as
safe breakdown in either direction is possible.
 Disadvantages of the TRIAC:
The TRIAC has the following disadvantages:

(i) TRIACs have low dv/dt ratings compared to SCRs.

(ii) Since TRIACs can be triggered in either direction, the trigger circuits with
TRIACs needs careful consideration.
(iii) Reliability of TRIACs is less than that of SCRs.
Simple Applications of the TRIAC:
The TRIAC as a bidirectional thyristor has various
applications. Some of the popular applications of the
TRIAC are as follows:

(i) In speed control of single-phase ac series or universal motors.

(ii) In food mixers and portable drills.
(iii) In lamp dimming and heating control.
(iv) In zero-voltage switched ac relay.
 DIODE AC SWITCH (DIAC):
The DIAC is a combination of two diodes. Diodes being unidirectional
devices, conduct current only in one direction.
If bidirectional (ac) operation is desired, two Shockley diodes may be
joined in parallel facing different directions to form the DIAC.
 Constructional Features:
The construction of DIAC looks like a transistor but there are major differences.
They are as follows:
(i) All the three layers, p n p or n p n, are equally doped in the DIAC, whereas
in the BJT there is a gradation of doping. The emitter is highly doped, the
collector is lightly doped, and the base is moderately doped.
(ii) The DIAC is a two-terminal diode as opposed to the BJT, which is a three-
terminal device.
 Physical Operation and
Characteristics:
The main characteristics are of the DIAC are as follows:
(i) Break over voltage
(ii) Voltage symmetry
(iii) Break-back voltage
(iv) Break over current
(v) Lower power dissipation

Although most DIACs have symmetric switching voltages, asymmetric

DIACs are also available. Typical DIACs have a power dissipations ranging from
1/2 to 1 watt.
I-V characteristics of the DIAC:
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT):
The uni-junction transistor is a three-terminal single-junction device.
The switching voltage of the UJT can be easily varied.
The UJT is always operated as a switch in oscillators, timing circuits and
in SCR/TRIAC trigger circuits.
 Constructional Features:
The UJT structure consists of a lightly doped n-type silicon bar provided
with ohmic contacts on either side.

The two end connections are called base B1 and base B2. A small heavily
doped p-region is alloyed into one side of the bar. This p-region is the UJT emitter (E)
that forms a p n junction with the bar.
Between base B1 and base B2, the resistance of the n-type bar called
inter-base resistance (RB ) and is in the order of a few kilo ohm.

This inter-base resistance can be broken up into two resistances the

resistance from B1 to the emitter is RB1 and the resistance from B2 to the emitter is
RB 2.
Since the emitter is closer to B2 the value of RB1is greater than RB2.
Total resistance is given by:
RB = RB1 + RB2
 Equivalent circuit for UJT:
The VBB source is
generally fixed and provides a
constant voltage from B2 to B1.

The UJT is normally

operated with both B2 and E
positive biased relative to B1.

B1 is always the UJT

reference terminal and all voltages
are measured relative to B1 . VEE is
a variable voltage source.
UJT V I characteristic curves:
 ON State of the UJT Circuit:
As VEE increases, the UJT stays in the OFF state until VE approaches
the peak point value V P. As VE approaches VP the p n junction becomes forward-
biased and begins to conduct in the opposite direction.
As a result IE becomes positive near the peak point P on the VE - IE
curve. When VE exactly equals VP the emitter current equals IP .

At this point holes from the heavily doped emitter are injected into
the n-type bar, especially into the B1 region. The bar, which is lightly doped,
offers very little chance for these holes to recombine.

The lower half of the bar becomes replete with additional current
carriers (holes) and its resistance RB is drastically reduced; the decrease in BB1
causes Vx to drop.
This drop, in turn, causes the diode to become more forward-biased
and IE increases even further.
 OFF State of the UJT Circuit:
When a voltage VBB is applied across the two base terminals B1 and
B2, the potential of point p with respect to B1 is given by:
VP =[VBB/ (RB1 +RB2)]*RB1= *RB1

between 0.5 and 0.8.

The VEE source is applied to the emitter which is the p-side. Thus, the
emitter diode will be reverse-biased as long as VEE is less than Vx. This is OFF
state and is shown on the VE - IE curve as being a very low current region.

In the OFF the UJT has a very high resistance between E and B1, and
IE is usually a negligible reverse leakage current. With no IE, the drop across RE
is zero and the emitter voltage equals the source voltage.
 Applications:
The UJT is very popular today mainly due to its high switching speed.

A few select applications of the UJT are as follows:

(i) It is used to trigger SCRs and TRIACs
(ii) It is used in non-sinusoidal oscillators
(iii) It is used in phase control and timing circuits
(iv) It is used in saw tooth generators
(v) It is used in oscillator circuit design
 PHOTO TRANSSTOR

The phototransistor is a transistor in which base

current is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region.

The collector-base P-N junction is exposed to incident

light through a lens opening in the transistor package.

When there is no incident light, there is only a small

thermally generated collector-to-emitter leakage
current i.e. I(CEO), this is called the dark current and is
typically in the nA range.
 The phototransistor is similar to a regular BJT except that the base current is
produced and controlled by light instead of a voltage source.

The phototransistor effectively converts variations in light energy to an electrical

signal

The collector-base pn junction is exposed to incident light through a lens opening in

the transistor package.

The phototransistor is a transistor in which base current is produced when light

strikes the photosensitive semiconductor base region.

When there is no incident light, there is only a small thermally generated collector-
to-emitter leakage current i.e. I(CEO), this is called the dark current and is typically
in the range of nA.
When light strikes the collector-base pn junction, a base current, I , is produced
that is directly proportional to the light intensity.
This action produces a collector current that increases with I .

Except for the way base current is generated, the phototransistor behaves as a
conventional BJT.

In many cases there is no electrical connection to the base

The relationship between the collector current and the light-generated base
current in a phototransistor is IC DC * I .

104
 SYMBOL OF
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
A typical phototransistor is designed to
offer a large area to the incident light, as
the simplified structure diagram in
Figure:
Phototransistor are of two types.

1. Three Lead Phototransistor.

2. Two Lead Phototransistor.
1. Three Lead Phototransistor:

In the three-lead configuration, the base

lead is brought out so that the device can
be used as a conventional BJT with or
without the additional light-sensitivity
feature.
2. Two Lead Phototransistor:

In the two-lead configuration. the base

is not electrically available, and the
device can be used only with light as the
input. In many applications, the
phototransistor is used in the two-lead
version.
Phototransistor
Bias Circuit
Typical collector characteristic curves. Notice that each
individual curve on the graph corresponds to a certain value of
light intensity (in this case, the units are m W/cm2) and that the
collector current increases with light intensity.
 IR EMITTERS
An infrared emitter, or IR emitter, is a source of light energy in the infrared
spectrum. It is a light emitting diode (LED) that is used in order to transmit
infrared signals from a remote control.
In general, the more they are in quantity and the better the emitters are,
the stronger and wider the resulting signal is.
A remote with strong emitters can often be used without directly pointing
at the desired device. Infrared emitters are also partly responsible for
limits on the range of frequencies that can be controlled.
An IR emitter generates infrared light that transmits information and
commands from one device to another.
Typically one device receives the signal then passes the infrared (IR) signal
through the emitter to another device.
Solar Cell
Solar cell, also called photovoltaic cell, any device that directly
converts the energy in light into electrical energy through
the photovoltaic effect. The overwhelming majority of solar
cells are fabricated from silicon with
increasing efficiency and lowering cost as the materials range
from amorphous(noncrystalline) to polycrystalline to
crystalline (single crystal) silicon forms. Unlike batteries or fuel
cells, solar cells do not utilize chemical reactions or require
fuel to produce electric power, and, unlike electric generators,
they do not have any moving parts.
Schottky Barrier diode:
A metal semiconductor junction is formed at
one end, it is a unilateral junction. Another
metal semiconductor contact is formed at
the other end. It is an ideal Ohmic bilateral
contact with no potential existing between
metal and semiconductor and is non
rectifying. The built-in potential across the
open circuited Schottky barrier
diode characterizes the Schottky barrier
diode.
 REFERENCES
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
notes-pdf/
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
AUTONOMOUS

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(19EC0445)
I [Link] I-Sem (CSE)

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
 UNIT- IV

Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT): Construction,

Operation, Transistor configurations, Transistor
characteristics- CB, CE and CC, Transistor as an Amplifier,
Need for Transistor biasing, operating point, Load line
analysis, Stability Factor, Biasing methods- Types, Self- bias,
Bias compensation.
Output current can toggle between large and small

(Switching Digital logic; create 0s and 1s)

Small rd terminal) creates Large

change in output between 1st and 2nd terminal

(Amplification Analog applications; Turn 0.5 50)

 Recall p-n junction

P N N P

W W +
-
+ -
Vappl > 0 Vappl < 0

Forward bias, + on P, - on N Reverse bias, + on N, - on P

(Shrink W, Vbi) (Expand W, Vbi)

Allow holes to jump over barrier Remove holes and electrons away
into N region as minority carriers from depletion region

I I

V V
 P N N P

W W +
+ - -
Vappl > 0 Vappl < 0

st PN junction
driven by FB of 1st

Driven by RB of 2nd PN junction from Base into P region of

2nd

1st region FB, 2nd RB

If we want to worry about holes alone, need P+ on 1st region

For holes to be removed by collector, base region must be thin

 Bipolar Junction Transistors: Basics

+ -

IE IC
- + IB

E B C

EC EB BC
Physical Structure
Consists of 3 alternate layers of n-
and p-type semiconductor called
emitter (E), base (B) and collector
(C).
Majority of current enters collector,
crosses base region and exits
through emitter. A small current also
enters base terminal, crosses base-
emitter junction and exits through
emitter.
Carrier transport in the active base
region directly beneath the heavily
doped (n+) emitter dominates i-v
characteristics of BJT.
 :
1) Active - BJT acts like an amplifier (most common use)
2) Saturation - BJT acts like a short circuit
BJT is used as a switch by switching
3) Cutoff - BJT acts like an open circuit
between these two regions.

When analyzing a DC
BJT circuit, the BJT is
replaced by one of the
DC circuit models
shown below.

DC Models for a BJT:

Output characteristics: npn BJT (typical)

Note: The PE review text

sometimes uses dc instead of dc.
They are related as follows:

Find the approximate values of

dc and dc from the graph.
Input characteristics: npn BJT (typical)
The input characteristics look like the characteristics of a
forward-biased diode. Note that VBE varies only slightly, so
we often ignore these characteristics and assume:
Common approximation: VBE = Vo = 0.65 to 0.7V

Note: Two key specifications for the BJT are Bdc

and Vo (or assume Vo is about 0.7 V)
Figure: Common-emitter characteristics displaying exaggerated secondary effects.
Figure: Common-emitter characteristics displaying exaggerated secondary effects.
+
_
+
_
Saturation Region
BJT configurations

GAIN CONFIG
Bipolar Junction Transistors: Basics

Bias Mode E-B Junction C-B Junction

Saturation Forward Forward

Active Forward Reverse

Inverted Reverse Forward
Cutoff Reverse Reverse
BJT Fabrication
PNP BJT Electrostatics
PNP BJT Electrostatics
NPN Transistor Band Diagram: Equilibrium
Proper Transistor Biasing
For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-
base junction must be forward-biased and the collector-base
junction must be reverse-biased.
The common connection for the voltage sources are at the base
lead of the transistor.
The emitter-base supply voltage is designated VEE and the collector-
base supply voltage is designated VCC.
For silicon, the barrier potential for both EB and CB junctions equals
0.7 V
Transistor Biasing

The basic function of transistor is amplification. The process of

raising the strength of weak signal without any change in its general
shape is referred as faithful amplification. For faithful amplification it
is essential that:-

1. Emitter-Base junction is forward biased

2. Collector- Base junction is reversed biased
3. Proper zero signal collector current

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the

maintenance of proper collector emitter voltage during
the passage of signal is called transistor biasing.

35
 WHY BIASING?

If the transistor is not biased properly, it would work inefficiently and

produce distortion in output signal.

HOW A TRANSISTOR CAN BE BIASED?

A transistor is biased either with the help of battery or associating a
circuit with the transistor. The later method is more efficient and is
frequently used. The circuit used for transistor biasing is called the
biasing circuit.

36
 BIAS STABILITY

Through proper biasing, a desired quiescent operating point of the transistor

amplifier in the active region (linear region) of the characteristics is obtained. It is
desired that once selected the operating point should remain stable. The
maintenance of operating point stable is called Stabilisation.

The selection of a proper quiescent point generally depends on the following

factors:
(a) The amplitude of the signal to be handled by the amplifier and distortion
level in signal
(b) The load to which the amplifier is to work for a corresponding supply
voltage

The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts mainly with changes in

temperature, since the transistor parameters ICO and VBE (where the
symbols carry their usual meaning) are functions of temperature.

37
The DC Operating Point
For a transistor circuit to amplify it must be properly biased with dc
voltages. The dc operating point between saturation and cutoff is
called the Q-point. The goal is to set the Q-point such that that it
does not go into saturation or cutoff when an a ac signal is applied.

38
Various Biasing Circuits

Fixed Bias Circuit

Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor

Collector to Base Bias Circuit

Potential Divider Bias Circuit

Merits:
It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by
merely changing the base resistor (RB).
A very small number of components are required.

Demerits:
The collector current does not remain constant with variation in
temperature or power supply voltage. Therefore the operating point is
unstable.
When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in
the value of can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will
shift.
For small-signal transistors (e.g., not power transistors) with relatively high
values of (i.e., between 100 and 200), this configuration will be prone to
thermal runaway. In particular, the stability factor, which is a measure of
the change in collector current with changes in reverse saturation current,
is approximately 1. To ensure absolute stability of the amplifier, a
stability factor of less than 25 is preferred, and so small-signal transistors
have large stability factors.

42
 Fixed bias with emitter resistor

The fixed bias circuit is

modified by attaching an
external resistor to the
emitter. This resistor
introduces negative
feedback that stabilizes
the Q-point.
Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against
changes in temperature and -value.
Demerits:
As -value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied
either by keeping RE very large, or making RB very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost
as well as precautions necessary while handling.
If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be
used in the base circuit. Using two supplies of different
voltages is impractical.
In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback which reduces the
voltage gain of the amplifier.
Usage:
The feedback also increases the input impedance of the amplifier when
seen from the base, which can be advantageous. Due to the above
disadvantages, this type of biasing circuit is used only with careful
consideration of the trade-offs involved.
Merits:
Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature
and (i.e. replacement of transistor)
Demerits:
-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this
relation can be satisfied either by keeping R c fairly large or making Rf very
low.
If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases
cost as well as
precautions necessary while handling.
If Rf is low, the reverse bias of the collector base region is
small, which limits the range of collector voltage swing that
leaves the transistor in active mode.
The resistor Rf causes an AC feedback, reducing the voltage
gain of the amplifier. This undesirable effect is a trade-off for
greater Q-point stability.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier
as seen from the base, which can be advantageous. Due to the gain
reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used only when the trade-off
for stability is warranted.

47
Merits:

Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.

Demerits:
As -value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either
by keeping RE fairly large, or making R1||R2 very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases
cost as well
as precautions necessary while handling.
If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are
low. A low R1 raises VB closer to VC, reducing the available
swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large RC can be
made without driving the transistor out of active mode. A low
R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector current.
Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the
power supply and lowers the input resistance of the amplifier
as seen from the base.
AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces
the AC voltage gain of the amplifier. A method to avoid AC
feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussed below.
Usage:
The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear
circuits. 51
 Biasing refers to the establishment of suitable dc values of different
currents and voltages of a transistor.
Through proper biasing, a desired quiescent operating point of the
transistor amplifier in the active region (linear region) of the
characteristics is obtained.
The selection of a proper quiescent point generally depends on the
following factors:
(a) The amplitude of the signal to be handled by the amplifier and
distortion level in signal
(b) The load to which the amplifier is to work for a corresponding
supply voltage
The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts mainly with changes
in temperature, since the transistor parameters , ICO and VBE (where
the symbols carry their usual meaning) are functions of temperature.
Circuit Configurations
Fixed-bias circuit
Fixed bias with emitter resistance
Voltage-divider bias
Voltage-feedback biasing
Fixed-bias circuit
Base emitter loop Collector emitter loop
and

(a) Representation of fixed-bias circuit (b) Equivalent

circuit
Fixed bias with emitter resistance
Base emitter loop

and the emitter current can be written as

From above two equation we get:

Collector emitter loop

with the base current known, IC

can be easily calculated by the
relation IC = B.

Fixed-bias circuit with emitter resistance

 Voltage-divider bias:- The Thevenins equivalent voltage and
resistance for the input side is given by:
and

The KVL equation for the input circuit is given as:

Voltage-divider bias circuit Simplified voltage-divider circuit

 Voltage-feedback biasing
Base emitter loop
Applying KVL for this part, we get:

Thus, the base current can be obtained as:

Representation of Voltage-feedback biased

circuit
Stabilization Against Variations in
Transfer characteristic:- In this particular characteristic, the
C
output current I is a function of input voltage for the germanium
transistor. Thus, the word is used for this characteristic.

Transfer characteristics for

germanium p n p alloy type
transistor
 Self-bias circuit

Collector current vs. base-to-emitter

voltage for a silicon transistor
Variation of the collector current
with temperature because of VBE,
Transistor Biasing

For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, an

external dc supply voltage must be applied to produce
the desired collector current.
Bias is defined as a control voltage or current.
Transistors must be biased correctly to produce the
desired circuit voltages and currents.
The most common techniques used in biasing are
Base bias
Voltage-divider bias
Emitter bias
 Transistor Biasing

Fig. -1 (a) shows the simplest way to

bias a transistor, called base bias.
VBB is the base supply voltage, which
is used to forward-bias the base-emitter
junction.
RB is used to provide the desired
value of base current.
VCC is the collector supply voltage,
which provides the reverse-bias voltage
required for the collector-base junction.
The collector resistor, RC, provides the
desired voltage in the collector circuit

Fig. -1
 Transistor Biasing

The dc load line is a graph that allows us to determine all possible combinations
of IC and VCE for a given amplifier.

For every value of collector current, IC, the corresponding value of VCE can be
found by examining the dc load line.

A sample dc load line is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Transistor Biasing
Midpoint Bias
Without an ac signal applied to a transistor, specific
values of IC and VCE exist at a specific point on a dc
load line
This specific point is called the Q point (quiescent
currents and voltages with no ac input signal)
An amplifier is biased such that the Q point is near
the center of dc load line
ICQ = ½ IC(sat)
VCEQ = ½ VCC
Base bias provides a very unstable Q point, because
IC and VCE are greatly affected by any change in the
 Transistor Biasing

Fig. 2 illustrates a dc load line

showing the end points IC (sat) and
VCE (off), as well as the Q point
values ICQ and VCEQ.

Fig. 2
Base Bias Example 1

Solve for IB, IC and VCE

Construct a dc load line showing the values of IC(sat), VCE(off), ICQ and VCEQ
Base Bias Example 2

Solve for IB, IC and VCE

Construct a dc load line showing
the values of IC(sat), VCE(off), ICQ and
VCEQ
Voltage Divider Bias Example

Solve for VB, VE, IE, IC, VC and VCE

Construct a dc load line showing the values of IC(sat), VCE(off), ICQ and VCEQ
 28-6: Transistor Biasing

Fig. 28-19 shows the dc

load line for voltage-divider
biased transistor circuit in Fig.
28-18.
End points and Q points are
IC (sat) = 12.09 mA
VCE (off) = 15 V
ICQ = 7 mA
VCEQ = 6.32 V

Fig. 28-19
 Transistor Biasing

Both positive and negative power

supplies are available

Emitter bias provides a solid Q

point that fluctuates very little with
temperature variation and transistor
replacement.

Fig.
Emitter Bias Example

Solve for IE, and VC

 Stability Factor S:- The stability factor S, as the change of collector
current with respect to the reverse saturation current, keeping and VBE
constant. This can be written as:
Or,

Stability Factor :- The variation of IC with VBE is given by the

stability factor S defined by the partial derivative:

Stability Factor S :- The variation of IC with respect to is

represented by the stability factor, S'', given as:

General Remarks on Collector Current Stability:- The stability

factors have been defined earlier keeping in mind the change in collector
current with respect to changes in ICO , VBE and . These stability factors
are repeated here for simplicity.
 PNP Transistor Active Bias Mode

VEB > 0
VCB > 0
Few recombine
in the base

Collector Fields drive holes

return thermionically

Large injection Most holes

of Holes diffuse to
collector
Forward Active minority carrier distribution

P+ N P

pB(x)

nE nC0
pB0
nE0
nC
PNP Physical Currents
 PNP transistor amplifier action

IN (small)

OUT (large)

Clearly this works in common emitter

configuration
 Common Base DC current gain - PNP

Common Base Active Bias mode:

IC = DCIE + ICB0

ICp = TIEp
DC = T
= T IE

IC = T IE + ICn
 Common Emitter DC current gain - PNP

Common Emitter Active Bias mode:

IE = DCIB + ICE0

DC =
IC = DCIE + ICB0 DC /(1- DC)
= DC(IC + IB) + ICB0 GAIN !!
IC
IB
IC = DCIB + ICB0
1- DC
IE
Thin base will make T 1
Highly doped P region will make 1
PNP BJT Common Emitter Characteristic
 FET ( Field Effect Transistor)
Few important advantages of FET over conventional Transistors
1. Unipolar device i. e. operation depends on only one type of
charge carriers (h or e)
2. Voltage controlled Device (gate voltage controls drain
current)
3. Very high input impedance ( 109-1012 )
4. Source and drain are interchangeable in most Low-frequency
applications
5. Low Voltage Low Current Operation is possible (Low-power
consumption)
6. Less Noisy as Compared to BJT
7. No minority carrier storage (Turn off is faster)
8. Self limiting device
9. Very small in size, occupies very small space in ICs
10. Low voltage low current operation is possible in MOSFETS
11. Zero temperature drift of out put is possiblek
Types of Field Effect Transistors
(The Classification)

» JFET
n-Channel JFET
FET
p-Channel JFET
MOSFET (IGFET)

Enhancement Depletion
MOSFET MOSFET

n-Channel p-Channel n-Channel p-Channel

EMOSFET EMOSFET DMOSFET DMOSFET
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Figure: n-Channel JFET.

 SYMBOLS

Drain Drain
Drain

Gate Gate
Gate

Source Source
Source

n-channel JFET n-channel JFET p-channel JFET

Offset-gate symbol
 Biasing the JFET

Figure: n-Channel JFET and Biasing Circuit.

Operation of JFET at Various Gate Bias Potentials

Figure: The nonconductive depletion region becomes broader with increased reverse bias.
(Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.)
 Operation of a JFET

Drain
-
N

Gate
+ +
P P
-

-
N
+
Source
 Output or Drain (VD-ID) Characteristics of n-JFET

Figure: Circuit for drain characteristics of the n-channel JFET and its Drain characteristics.

Non-saturation (Ohmic) Region:

The drain current is given by

Saturation (or Pinchoff) Region:

Where, IDSS is the short circuit drain current, VP is the pinch off
voltage
Simple Operation and Break down of n-Channel JFET

Figure: n-Channel FET for vGS = 0.

N-Channel JFET Characteristics and Breakdown

Break Down Region

Figure: If vDG exceeds the breakdown voltage VB, drain current increases rapidly.
VD-ID Characteristics of EMOS FET
Locus of pts where

Saturation or Pinch
off Reg.

Figure: Typical drain characteristics of an n-channel JFET.

Transfer (Mutual) Characteristics of n-Channel JFET

IDSS

VGS (off)=VP

Figure: Transfer (or Mutual) Characteristics of n-Channel JFET

JFET Transfer Curve
This graph shows the value of ID for a given
value of VGS
Figure p-Channel FET circuit symbols. These are the same as the circuit symbols for n-channel devices,
except for the directions of the arrowheads.
Figure: Circuit symbol for an enhancement-mode n-channel MOSFET.
Figure: n-Channel Enhancement MOSFET showing channel length L and channel width W.
Figure: For vGS < Vto the pn junction between drain and body is reverse biased and iD=0.
 Figure: For vGS >Vto a channel of n-type material is induced in the region under the gate.
As vGS increases, the channel becomes thicker. For small values of vDS ,iD is proportional to vDS.
The device behaves as a resistor whose value depends on vGS.
Figure: As vDS increases, the channel pinches down at the drain end and iD increases more slowly.
Finally for vDS> vGS -Vto, iD becomes constant.
Current-Voltage Relationship of
n-EMOSFET

Locus of points where

Figure: Drain characteristics
 REFERENCES
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
notes-pdf/
3. [Link]
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
AUTONOMOUS

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(19EC0445)
I [Link] I-Sem (CSE)

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
 UNIT- V
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR(FET)

Field Effect Transistor (FET): Classification, JFET-Construction, Working,

Characteristics and parameters, MOSFET-Types, Construction, Working,
Characteristics, Comparison of BJT and FET, Biasing methods- Types,
operating point, Voltage Divider Bias.
 FET ( Field Effect Transistor)
Few important advantages of FET over conventional Transistors
1. Unipolar device i. e. operation depends on only one type of
charge carriers (h or e)
2. Voltage controlled Device (gate voltage controls drain
current)
3. Very high input impedance ( 109-1012 )
4. Source and drain are interchangeable in most Low-frequency
applications
5. Low Voltage Low Current Operation is possible (Low-power
consumption)
6. Less Noisy as Compared to BJT
7. No minority carrier storage (Turn off is faster)
8. Self limiting device
9. Very small in size, occupies very small space in ICs
10. Low voltage low current operation is possible in MOSFETS
11. Zero temperature drift of out put is possiblek
Types of Field Effect Transistors
(The Classification)

» JFET
n-Channel JFET
FET
p-Channel JFET
MOSFET (IGFET)

Enhancement Depletion
MOSFET MOSFET

n-Channel p-Channel n-Channel p-Channel

EMOSFET EMOSFET DMOSFET DMOSFET
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Figure: n-Channel JFET.

 SYMBOLS

Drain Drain
Drain

Gate Gate
Gate

Source Source
Source

n-channel JFET n-channel JFET p-channel JFET

Offset-gate symbol
 Biasing the JFET

Figure: n-Channel JFET and Biasing Circuit.

Operation of JFET at Various Gate Bias Potentials

Figure: The nonconductive depletion region becomes broader with increased reverse bias.
(Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.)
 Operation of a JFET

Drain
-
N

Gate
+ +
P P
-

-
N
+
Source
 Output or Drain (VD-ID) Characteristics of n-JFET

Figure: Circuit for drain characteristics of the n-channel JFET and its Drain characteristics.

Non-saturation (Ohmic) Region:

The drain current is given by

Saturation (or Pinchoff) Region:

Where, IDSS is the short circuit drain current, VP is the pinch off
voltage
Simple Operation and Break down of n-Channel JFET

Figure: n-Channel FET for vGS = 0.

N-Channel JFET Characteristics and Breakdown

Break Down Region

Figure: If vDG exceeds the breakdown voltage VB, drain current increases rapidly.
VD-ID Characteristics of EMOS FET
Locus of pts where

Saturation or Pinch
off Reg.

Figure: Typical drain characteristics of an n-channel JFET.

Transfer (Mutual) Characteristics of n-Channel JFET

IDSS

VGS (off)=VP

Figure: Transfer (or Mutual) Characteristics of n-Channel JFET

JFET Transfer Curve
This graph shows the value of ID for a given
value of VGS
Figure p-Channel FET circuit symbols. These are the same as the circuit symbols for n-channel devices,
except for the directions of the arrowheads.
Figure: Circuit symbol for an enhancement-mode n-channel MOSFET.
Figure: n-Channel Enhancement MOSFET showing channel length L and channel width W.
Figure: For vGS < Vto the pn junction between drain and body is reverse biased and iD=0.
 Figure: For vGS >Vto a channel of n-type material is induced in the region under the gate.
As vGS increases, the channel becomes thicker. For small values of vDS ,iD is proportional to vDS.
The device behaves as a resistor whose value depends on vGS.
Figure: As vDS increases, the channel pinches down at the drain end and iD increases more slowly.
Finally for vDS> vGS -Vto, iD becomes constant.
Current-Voltage Relationship of
n-EMOSFET

Locus of points where

Figure: Drain characteristics
 REFERENCES
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
notes-pdf/
3. [Link]
4. [Link]