SUBJECT – MACHINE DESIGN LAB (ME 316)
REPORT BY-
PRITAM JYOTI DEKA
SCHOLAR ID– 2216104
SEMESTER – 6th
SECTION – B1
Cost: Structural Materials for Buildings
Buildings need three types of materials:
Structural materials: These hold the building up and resist bending and collapsing from
wind, weight, and other forces. They should be stiff, strong, and affordable since a large
quantity is needed. Appearance and corrosion resistance are not major concerns for structural
materials because they are usually hidden inside the building.
Cladding: This keeps the weather out and forms the building's exterior.
Internal materials: These provide insulation against heat, sound, and other elements.
This passage focuses on choosing structural materials, specifically for floor beams. The ideal
structural material should be:
Stiff: To prevent excessive bending under various loads.
Strong: To ensure the building can withstand the forces placed upon it without collapsing.
Cost-effective: Due to the large amount of material required.
We'll now explore a mathematical model to identify the best material for these purposes.
The most expensive thing that most people buy is the house they live in. Roughly half the cost of a
house is the cost of the materials of which it is made, and they are used in large quantities (family
house: around 200 tonnes; large apartment block: around 20,000 tonnes). The materials are used in
three ways:
To hold the building up (structural materials).
As cladding, to keep the weather out.
As "internals," to insulate against heat, sound, and so forth.
Consider the selection of materials for the structure (Figure 6.7). They must be stiff, strong, and cheap.
Stiff, so that the building does not flex too much under wind loads or internal loading. Strong, so that
there is no risk of it collapsing. And cheap, because such a lot of material is used. The structural frame
of a building is rarely exposed to the environment, and is not, in general, visible, so criteria of
corrosion resistance or appearance are not important here. The design goal is simple: strength and
stiffness at minimum cost. To be more specific: consider the selection of material for floor beams.
Material Typical M1 (GPa½.m³/Mg) Typical M2 (GPa) Comment
GFRP 2.5 20 Cheaper than CFRP, but
lower M1 and M2
Woods 4.5 10 Outstanding M1 ; poor M2
Cheap, traditional, reliable
Ceramics 6.3 300 Outstanding M1 and M2 .
Eliminated by brittleness
CFRP 6.6 100 Outstanding M1 and M2 ,
but expensive
Table 6.7 summarizes the requirements.
The Model. The material index for a stiff beam of minimum mass, m, was developed in Chapter 5
(equations (5.6)-(5.9)). The cost C of the beam is just its mass, m, times the cost per kg, Cm , of the
material of which it is made:
C=
C=mCm
mCm =ALpCm
ALpCm
which becomes the objective function of the problem. Proceeding as in Chapter 5, we find the index
for a stiff beam of minimum cost to be:
M1=ElpCm
Function constraints Floor Beams
Length L specified
Stiffness: Must not deflect too much under design loads
Strength: Must not fail under design loads
Objective free variables Minimize the cost C
Cross-section area of beam, A
Choice of material
Constraints:
Length (L) specified
Stiffness: must not deflect too much under design loads
Strength: must not fail under design loads
Objective:
Minimize cost (C)
The table also includes formulas for calculating the failure load of a beam and the cost of the beam.
Key Points:
The cost of a beam is proportional to the square root of the product of the failure load (F)
and the length of the beam (L).
The mass of a beam is minimized by selecting materials with the largest values of a material
index (M2 ). This index is a function of the material's strength and density.
The table concludes by noting that the materials that are best for floor beams based on stiffness and
strength are also the materials that have traditionally been used for building construction, such as
concrete, steel, and wood. This is because these materials are both stiff and strong, and they have a
good balance of strength and density.
1. Beam Failure Load: The failure load Ff of a beam is determined by a formula involving
constants C2 , the failure strength of the material σf , the distance between the neutral
axis and the outer filament, and the length L of the beam.
2. Beam Cost: The cost C of a beam that can just support the load Ff is calculated based on
factors including the failure load Ff , length L, and constants C2 and sf .
3. Material Selection: The objective is to minimize mass while achieving the required strength.
This involves selecting materials based on their indices M2 , which is a function involving
the failure strength of the material and the cost factor Cm . The choice of material is
influenced by stiffness, which plots modulus E against relative cost per unit volume Cm .
Strength and cost are also considered, which helps in isolating materials within a specific
shaded band that meets the requirements of M2 .
4. Material Categories: Materials like concrete, stone, brick, wood, cast iron, and carbon steels
are identified as suitable based on their properties and cost-effectiveness for structural
applications.
5. Design Considerations: Different materials have different strengths and are suited for
specific load-bearing roles. For example, materials like concrete, stone, and brick primarily
function under compression, whereas wood, steel, and reinforced concrete can handle both
tension and compression, with steel offering additional design flexibility due to its ability to
be shaped efficiently.
Overall, the excerpt provides a structured approssach to selecting materials for beams based
mechanical properties, failure load calculations, and cost optimization, crucial for designing
structures that meet strength requirements while balancing economic considerations.
Material Abbreviation Relative Cost per Unit Volume Young's Modulus
Category (CV.R) (E)
Metals Steel High High
Metals Tungsten Carbide High High
(WC)
Ceramics Alumina (Al2O3) Low High
Polymers Polypropylene (PP) Low Low
Natural Wood Low Low
Materials
Concrete: Relatively low tensile strength but also one of the lowest densities. It's often used
in compression due to its low tensile strength.
Brick: Even lower tensile strength than concrete but similar density. It's also typically used in
compression.
Stone: Lower tensile strength than concrete but similar density.
Wood: Higher tensile strength than concrete or brick, but also lower density.
Cast Iron: Higher tensile strength than concrete or brick, but also higher density.
Steel: The highest tensile strength of all the materials listed in the table. It also has a higher
density than concrete, brick, stone, or wood.
Conclusion: The table suggests that steel is the strongest material in tension out of the ones listed.
However, it's also the densest, meaning it will be the heaviest. Concrete, brick, and stone are weaker
in tension but also lighter weight materials.
Elastic Hinges and Couplings
For a hinge used in the lid of a box, where the hinge is a thin ligament that needs to flex elastically
without carrying significant axial loads, the ideal material characteristics to consider are:
1. Flexibility and Elasticity: The material should exhibit high flexibility and elasticity to allow for
repeated bending (flexure) without undergoing permanent deformation or failure. This is
crucial for ensuring the hinge can withstand opening and closing of the box lid over its
lifetime.
2. Strength and Durability: While the hinge doesn't carry axial loads, it should still possess
adequate strength to withstand the mechanical stresses associated with flexing. The material
should be durable enough to maintain its integrity through numerous cycles of bending.
3. Fatigue Resistance: Since hinges undergo repetitive bending motions, the chosen material
should have good fatigue resistance to prevent failure due to cyclic loading.
4. Compatibility with Molding Process: Given that the box, lid, and hinge are to be molded in
one operation, the material must be suitable for the molding process (e.g., injection molding,
compression molding). It should be capable of forming thin ligaments without issues like
warping, shrinking, or degradation during molding.
5. Cost and Availability: Considerations of material cost and availability are important for
practical manufacturing purposes.
Based on these criteria, some suitable materials for hinges in this context include:
Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE): TPEs are flexible and elastic materials that can be molded
easily. They offer good durability, resilience, and fatigue resistance, making them suitable for
hinge applications where repeated flexing is required.
Polyurethane (PU): PU materials can be formulated to exhibit excellent elasticity and
durability. They can withstand repetitive bending without losing their mechanical properties,
making them suitable for hinge applications.
Silicone: Silicone elastomers possess high flexibility, resilience, and excellent fatigue
resistance. They are also compatible with molding processes and can maintain their
properties over a wide range of temperatures.
Certain Types of Rubber: Depending on the specific requirements, certain rubber
compounds can be suitable for hinge applications due to their flexibility, elasticity, and
fatigue resistance.
These materials can be tailored to meet the desired properties for hinge applications, such as
adjusting hardness (durometer), stiffness, and other mechanical characteristics through formulation.
Ultimately, the choice of material should consider the functional requirements of the hinge, along
with practical aspects related to manufacturing and cost-effectiveness.
Design Description
Requirements
Function Elastic hinge that allows for significant flexure and recoverable deflections
Constraints No failure, meaning stress (σ) < yield strength (σf) throughout the hinge
Objective Maximize elastic flexure, ensuring the hinge can bend without permanent
deformation
Free Variables Choice of material for the hinge
This table outlines the key aspects of designing an elastic hinge, emphasizing the importance of
selecting a material that can meet the functional requirements (flexibility, durability) while satisfying
constraints related to stress and failure criteria. The objective is to maximize the elastic flexure
capability of the hinge, which is influenced by the choice of material. The selection of material serves
as a critical free variable in achieving the desired hinge performance.
Based on the given information and equations regarding elastic hinges, particularly focusing on the
maximum stress (o), yield or failure strength (of), Young's modulus (E) of the material, and the index
(M) representing the material's suitability for bending to a small radius without damage, we can
summarize the key points as follows:
Design Requirements for Elastic Hinges:
1. Function: Elastic hinge designed to allow significant flexure and recoverable deflections.
2. Constraints: o No failure throughout the hinge, meaning stress (o) must be less than the
yield or failure strength (of).
3. Objective: Maximize elastic flexure capability of the hinge. 4. Free Variables: Choice of
material for the hinge.
Key Equations:
Surface Strain (ϵ): ϵ=2Rt
o t = Thickness of the ligament.
o R = Radius to which the ligament is bent.
Maximum Stress (σ): σ=2REϵ
o E = Young's modulus of the material.
Minimum Radius (Rmin ) to Avoid Damage: Rmin =21 σf E
o σf = Yield or failure strength of the material.
Index (M) for Material Selection: M=Eσf
Material Selection:
The best material for the hinge is determined by maximizing the index M=σ/E, indicating the
material's ability to bend to the smallest radius without damage.
Candidates are evaluated using the σf vs. E chart, aiming for materials with a higher MM
value.
Polymeric materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, and elastomers are
identified as suitable choices based on their properties. Elastomers, while highly flexible,
may be ideal for the hinge but might be too flexible for the body of the box.
Conclusion:
The design of elastic hinges involves careful consideration of material properties, ensuring that the
selected material can withstand repeated bending without failure while maximizing the flexibility and
elastic behavior of the hinge. Polymeric materials with appropriate stiffness and strength
characteristics are preferred choices for such applications.
Materials for elastic hinges. Elastomers are best, but may not be rigid enough to meet other
design needs. Then polymers such as nylon, PTFE and PE are better. Spring steel is less good, but
much stronger.
Material M (x10-³) Comment
Polyethylene 32 Widely used for cheap hinged bottle caps, etc.
Polypropylene 30 Stiffer than polyethylene. Easily molded.
Nylon 30 Stiffer than polyethylene. Easily molded.
PTFE (Teflon) 35 Very durable; more expensive than PE, PP, etc.
Elastomers 100-1000 Outstanding, but low modulus. High strength.
High Strength Copper Alloys 4 Less good than polymers. Use when high tensile stiffness
is required.
Spring Steel 6
This table summarizes different materials used for hinges, along with their respective index(M)
values and additional comments regarding their properties and applications. The index M (multiplied
by 10-³) represents the suitability of each material for bending to a small radius without damage,
with higher values indicating better performance in this aspect.
Advantages of Polymers in Design:
1. Design Freedom:
o Polymers offer greater design flexibility compared to metals. They can be
molded into complex shapes and integrated designs, allowing for
consolidation of multiple components into a single, cohesive structure.
2. Integration of Components:
o Elastic hinges exemplify this advantage by enabling the combination of
the box, hinge, and lid (typically separate components) into a single
molded unit. This integration reduces assembly complexity and
eliminates the need for additional fasteners.
3. Ease of Assembly:
o Polymers with spring-like properties facilitate snap-together assemblies.
Parts can easily join and secure without requiring complex assembly
processes or additional hardware.
4. Elastomeric Couplings:
o Elastomeric couplings serve as flexible universal joints, providing high degrees
of angular, parallel, and axial flexibility. They excel in applications requiring
shock absorption and dynamic movement transmission.
5. Engineering Opportunities:
o Elastomeric hinges and couplings offer diverse opportunities in engineering
design. Their unique properties can be leveraged to enhance product
performance, durability, and functionality in various applications.
Application in Engineering Design:
Elastic Hinges:
o Enable the creation of compact, integrated designs with simplified assembly
processes.
o Ideal for applications requiring repeated flexing and resilience, such as lids,
closures, and movable components.
Elastomeric Couplings:
o Provide flexibility and shock absorption in machinery and mechanical systems.
o Allow for misalignment compensation and smooth transmission of motion in
various orientations.
Conclusion:
The utilization of polymers, particularly in the form of elastic hinges and elastomeric couplings,
represents a paradigm shift in engineering design. These components offer significant advantages
over traditional metal counterparts, enabling innovative and efficient solutions across a wide range
of industries and applications. By embracing polymer-based technologies, engineers can unlock new
possibilities for enhanced performance, reduced complexity, and improved overall product design
and functionality.