Overall Topic: Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, and Chemical Behavior

I. Atomic Structure and Models

• A. Historical Development of Atomic Models:

◦ Timeline: Understanding the atom has evolved over time.

◦ Key Scientists:

◦ Thomson: Proposed the "plum pudding" model.

◦ Rutherford: Discovered the nucleus and proposed a nuclear model.

◦ Bohr: Developed a model with electrons orbiting the nucleus in specific energy levels.

◦ Quantum Mechanical Model: The current, most refined model, describing electrons in terms of
probability distributions (orbitals).

• B. Subatomic Particles:

◦ Protons (p+):

◦ Symbol: p+

◦ Charge: +1

◦ Mass: ~1 atomic mass unit (amu)

◦ Location: Nucleus

◦ Neutrons (n0):

◦ Symbol: n0

◦ Charge: 0 (neutral)

◦ Mass: ~1 amu

◦ Location: Nucleus

◦ Electrons (e-):

◦ Symbol: e-

◦ Charge: -1

◦ Mass: ~1/1836 amu (negligible)

◦ Location: Orbitals/shells around the nucleus

• C. Examples:

◦ Aluminum (Al):

◦ Atomic number: 13 (13 protons)

◦ Number of electrons (neutral atom): 13

◦ Common mass number: 27

◦ Number of neutrons: 27 - 13 = 14

• D. Isotopes:

◦ Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

◦ Example: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14 (all have 6 protons, but different numbers of neutrons).

◦ Calculations:

◦ Protons: Same as atomic number.

◦ Electrons: Same as atomic number (for neutral atoms).

◦ Neutrons: Mass number - Atomic number.

II. The Periodic Table

• A. Organization:

◦ Arranged in periods (rows) and groups (columns).

◦ Based on electron configurations and chemical properties.

◦ 7 periods and 18 groups.

• B. Key Contributors to Development:

◦ Lavoisier and Döbereiner: Early attempts to classify elements.

◦ De Chancourtois and Newlands: Noted repeating patterns in element properties.

◦ Mendeleev: Developed the first periodic table based on atomic mass and properties.

• C. Arrangement in Periods and Groups:

◦ Periods: Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells. Properties change
gradually across a period.

◦ Groups: Elements in the same group have similar valence electron configurations, leading to similar
chemical properties.

• D. Periodic Trends:

◦ Atomic Radius:

◦ Period: Decreases from left to right.

◦ Group: Increases from top to bottom.

◦ Ionization Energy:
◦ Period: Increases from left to right.

◦ Group: Decreases from top to bottom.

◦ Electron Affinity:

◦ Period: Generally increases (becomes more negative) from left to right.

◦ Group: Generally decreases (becomes less negative) from top to bottom.

◦ Electronegativity:

◦ Period: Increases from left to right.

◦ Group: Decreases from top to bottom.

III. Electron Configuration and Chemical Behavior

• A. Energy Levels and Subshells:

◦ Main energy levels: 1, 2, 3, 4, ...

◦ Subshells:

◦ s: can hold up to 2 electrons

◦ p: can hold up to 6 electrons

◦ d: can hold up to 10 electrons

◦ f: can hold up to 14 electrons

• B. Rules for Writing Electron Configurations:

◦ Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill the lowest energy levels first.

◦ Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, with opposite spins.

◦ Hund's Rule: Electrons will individually occupy each orbital within a subshell before doubling up in any
one orbital.

• C. Valence Electrons:

◦ Electrons in the outermost shell (highest energy level).

◦ Determine how an atom interacts with other atoms.

• D. Relationship to Group Number:

◦ Group 1: 1 valence electron

◦ Group 2: 2 valence electrons

◦ Group 13: 3 valence electrons

◦ Group 14: 4 valence electrons

◦ Group 15: 5 valence electrons

◦ Group 16: 6 valence electrons

◦ Group 17: 7 valence electrons

◦ Group 18: 8 valence electrons (except Helium, which has 2)

• E. Chemical Properties and Reactivity:

◦ Atoms with the same number of valence electrons have similar chemical properties.

◦ Reactivity is related to how easily an atom can gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration.

◦ Example: Group 1 elements (alkali metals) are highly reactive because they easily lose one electron.
Group 17 elements (halogens) are highly reactive because they easily gain one electron.

IV. Pure Substances

• A. Definition: Substances with a fixed chemical composition and distinct properties.

• B. Elements: Consist of only one type of atom (e.g., gold (Au)).

• C. Compounds: Consist of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio (e.g., water
(H2O)).

• D. Properties:

◦ Fixed chemical composition.

◦ Definite and constant chemical formula.

◦ All atoms of an element have a unique number of protons (atomic number).

These notes combine all the information from the images, providing a more detailed overview with
examples. Remember to use a periodic table as a visual aid to understand the concepts better.
Overall Topic: Atomic Structure, Periodic Table, and Chemical Behavior

• A. Historical Development of Atomic Models:

◦ Timeline: The understanding of the atom has evolved through a series of models, each building upon
the previous one.

◦ Key Scientists and Their Contributions:

◦ John Dalton (Early 1800s):

◦ Proposed the first modern atomic theory.

◦ Key Ideas: Elements are made of indivisible atoms; all atoms of a given element are identical; atoms
combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.

◦ J.J. Thomson (1897):

◦ Discovered the electron using cathode ray tubes.

◦ Proposed the "plum pudding" model: A sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electrons
embedded within it.

◦ Ernest Rutherford (1911):

◦ Conducted the gold foil experiment, which led to the discovery of the nucleus.

◦ Proposed the nuclear model: A small, dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by mostly empty
space with electrons orbiting the nucleus.

◦ Niels Bohr (1913):

◦ Modified Rutherford's model by incorporating quantum theory.

◦ Proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels or shells. Electrons can only exist in
these discrete energy levels.

◦ Explained the line spectra of hydrogen.

◦ Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg (1920s):

◦ Developed quantum mechanics, leading to the quantum mechanical model of the atom.

◦ The quantum mechanical model describes electrons in terms of probability distributions (orbitals)
rather than fixed orbits.

• B. Subatomic Particles:

◦ Protons (p+):

◦ Symbol: p+

◦ Charge: +1 (positive)

◦ Mass: Approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu) or 1.67262 x 10^-27 kg

◦ Location: Found in the nucleus of the atom

◦ Role: Determines the element's identity (atomic number)

◦ Neutrons (n0):

◦ Symbol: n0

◦ Charge: 0 (neutral - no charge)

◦ Mass: Approximately 1 amu or 1.67493 x 10^-27 kg (slightly heavier than a proton)

◦ Location: Found in the nucleus of the atom

◦ Role: Contributes to the mass of the atom and affects nuclear stability.

◦ Electrons (e-):

◦ Symbol: e-

◦ Charge: -1 (negative)

◦ Mass: Approximately 1/1836 amu or 9.10938 x 10^-31 kg (negligible compared to protons and
neutrons)

◦ Location: Found in orbitals/shells surrounding the nucleus

◦ Role: Involved in chemical bonding and determine the chemical properties of the atom.

• C. Examples:

◦ Aluminum (Al):

◦ Atomic number: 13 (13 protons in the nucleus)

◦ Number of electrons (in a neutral aluminum atom): 13 (arranged in electron shells)

◦ Common mass number: 27 (sum of protons and neutrons)

◦ Number of neutrons: 27 - 13 = 14

◦ Carbon (C):

◦ Atomic number: 6 (6 protons)

◦ Number of electrons (neutral atom): 6

◦ Common mass number: 12

◦ Number of neutrons: 12 - 6 = 6

• D. Isotopes:

◦ Definition: Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
◦ Examples:

◦ Hydrogen has three isotopes: Protium (¹H, 1 proton, 0 neutrons), Deuterium (²H, 1 proton, 1 neutron),
and Tritium (³H, 1 proton, 2 neutrons).

◦ Carbon has several isotopes, including Carbon-12 (¹²C, 6 protons, 6 neutrons), Carbon-13 (¹³C, 6
protons, 7 neutrons), and Carbon-14 (¹⁴C, 6 protons, 8 neutrons).

◦ Calculations:

◦ Number of protons: Always the same as the atomic number for a given element.

◦ Number of electrons: Same as the atomic number in a neutral atom.

◦ Number of neutrons: Mass number (A) - Atomic number (Z).

◦ Example: For Carbon-14 (¹⁴C): 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 14 - 6 = 8 neutrons.

II. The Periodic Table

• A. Organization:

◦ Arranged in a grid-like structure with rows called periods and columns called groups (or families).

◦ Elements are organized in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons).

◦ The arrangement reflects the periodic recurrence of similar chemical properties.

• B. Key Contributors to Development:

◦ Antoine Lavoisier (1700s):

◦ Compiled a list of known elements.

◦ Distinguished between metals and nonmetals.

◦ Johann Döbereiner (1829):

◦ Observed triads of elements with similar properties (e.g., chlorine, bromine, iodine).

◦ The atomic mass of the middle element was approximately the average of the other two.

◦ Alexander de Chancourtois (1862):

◦ Arranged elements in a helical pattern on a cylinder based on increasing atomic weight.

◦ Elements with similar properties appeared in vertical lines.

◦ John Newlands (1865):

◦ Proposed the "law of octaves," noting that elements with similar properties appeared every eighth
element when arranged by atomic weight.

◦ Dmitri Mendeleev (1869):

◦ Considered the "father of the periodic table."

◦ Arranged elements by atomic weight and grouped them according to similar chemical properties.

◦ Left gaps for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties.

• C. Arrangement in Periods and Groups:

◦ Periods (Rows):

◦ Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.

◦ Properties change gradually from metallic to nonmetallic as you move across a period from left to right.

◦ Period number corresponds to the highest energy level occupied by electrons in that period.

◦ Example: Elements in Period 3 (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar) all have electrons in the third energy level
(n=3).

◦ Groups (Columns or Families):

◦ Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons (electrons in the outermost
shell).

◦ Elements in the same group exhibit similar chemical properties.

◦ Groups are numbered 1-18.

◦ Examples:

◦ Group 1 (Alkali Metals): Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr - all have 1 valence electron and are highly reactive metals.

◦ Group 17 (Halogens): F, Cl, Br, I, At - all have 7 valence electrons and are highly reactive nonmetals.

• D. Periodic Trends:

◦ The most reactive elements are typically found at the left (alkali metals) and right (halogens) ends of
the period.

◦ Atomic Radius:

◦ Definition: A measure of the size of an atom.

◦ Period: Decreases from left to right across a period due to increasing nuclear charge attracting
electrons more strongly, pulling them closer to the nucleus.

◦ Group: Increases from top to bottom down a group because more electron shells are added, increasing
the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons.

◦ Ionization Energy:

◦ Definition: The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in the gaseous phase.

◦ Period: Increases from left to right across a period because the increasing nuclear charge makes it
harder to remove an electron.
◦ Group: Decreases from top to bottom down a group because the outermost electrons are farther from
the nucleus and easier to remove.

◦ Electron Affinity:

◦ Definition: The change in energy when an electron is added to a neutral atom in the gaseous phase. A
more negative electron affinity indicates a greater attraction for electrons.

◦ Period: Generally increases (becomes more negative) from left to right across a period (excluding noble
gases). Nonmetals have higher electron affinities than metals.

◦ Group: Generally decreases (becomes

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II. The Periodic Table (Continued)

 D. Periodic Trends (Continued):
o Electron Affinity (Continued):
o Group: Generally decreases (becomes less negative) from
top to bottom down a group, although there are exceptions
due to complex electron-electron interactions.
o Example: Chlorine (Cl) has a higher electron affinity than
Iodine (I).

o Electronegativity:
o Definition: A measure of the ability of an atom to attract
electrons in a chemical bond.
o Scale: Often measured on the Pauling scale, ranging from
about 0.7 (for Cesium) to 4.0 (for Fluorine).
o Period: Increases from left to right across a period because
nonmetals have a greater tendency to attract electrons to
achieve a stable electron configuration.
 o Group: Decreases from top to bottom down a group
because the bonding electrons are farther from the nucleus
and experience less attraction.
o Example: Fluorine (F) is the most electronegative element,
while Cesium (Cs) is one of the least electronegative.

III. Pure Substances

 A. Definition: Substances that have a fixed chemical composition and
distinct properties. They cannot be separated into other substances by
physical means.
 B. Elements:
o Consist of only one type of atom.

o Examples: Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Oxygen (O₂),

Nitrogen (N₂).
o Each element has a unique number of protons (atomic number).

 C. Compounds:
o Consist of two or more different elements chemically combined
in a fixed ratio.
o Examples: Water (H₂O), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Sodium Chloride
(NaCl), Methane (CH₄).
o Compounds have properties that are different from those of their
constituent elements.

 D. Properties of Pure Substances:

o Fixed chemical composition.

o Definite and constant chemical formula.

o Homogeneous: Uniform composition throughout.

o Distinct physical and chemical properties (e.g., melting point,

boiling point, density).

IV. Electron Configuration and Chemical Behavior

 A. Energy Levels and Subshells:
o Electrons are arranged in specific energy levels (also called
shells) around the nucleus.
 o Main energy levels are numbered: 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...)

o Each energy level consists of one or more subshells (also called

sublevels).
o Subshells are designated by the letters: s, p, d, f.

o Each subshell can hold a specific number of electrons:

o s subshell: can hold up to 2 electrons

o p subshell: can hold up to 6 electrons

o d subshell: can hold up to 10 electrons

o f subshell: can hold up to 14 electrons

 B. Rules for Writing Electron Configurations:

o Aufbau Principle (the "building-up" principle): Electrons
first fill the lowest energy levels and subshells before occupying
higher ones. The order of filling is generally: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p,
4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
o Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each orbital (a specific region within
a subshell) can hold a maximum of two electrons, and these two
electrons must have opposite spins (represented as ↑ and ↓).
o Hund's Rule: Within a given subshell, electrons will individually
occupy each orbital before doubling up in any one orbital. All of
the unpaired electrons will have the same spin.
 C. Valence Electrons:
o Definition: Electrons in the outermost (highest energy level) shell
of an atom.
o Valence electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of
an atom and how it interacts with other atoms to form chemical
bonds.

 D. Relationship to Group Number:

o The group number (for main group elements) corresponds to the
number of valence electrons.

o Group 1: 1 valence electron

o Group 2: 2 valence electrons

 o Group 13: 3 valence electrons

o Group 14: 4 valence electrons

o Group 15: 5 valence electrons

o Group 16: 6 valence electrons

o Group 17: 7 valence electrons

o Group 18: 8 valence electrons (except Helium, which has

2)

 E. Chemical Properties and Reactivity:

o Atoms with the same number of valence electrons tend to have
similar chemical properties.
o Reactivity is related to how easily an atom can gain, lose, or
share electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration
(usually a full outermost shell, like the noble gases).
o Examples:

o Group 1 elements (alkali metals) are highly reactive

because they easily lose one electron to form +1 ions.
o Group 17 elements (halogens) are highly reactive because
they easily gain one electron to form -1 ions.
o Group 18 elements (noble gases) are generally unreactive
because they already have a full outermost shell.